tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-12370872171871721162024-03-18T12:15:05.238-06:00American CreationA group blog to promote discussion, debate and insight into the history, particularly religious, of America's founding. Any observations, questions, or comments relating to the blog's theme are welcomed.Brad Harthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17669677047039491864noreply@blogger.comBlogger3176125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-42769135834806993162024-03-18T12:14:00.001-06:002024-03-18T12:14:09.312-06:00Michael Douglas as Benjamin Franklin? It's Coming Soon to Apple TV+<p> I don't know how I missed it, but I did. When I opened YouTube today, I saw it for the first time, even though <a href="https://deadline.com/2022/02/michael-douglas-benjamin-franklin-apple-tv-limited-series-kirk-ellis-tim-van-patten-1234961897/" target="_blank">it was announced in 2022</a>. What is "it"? Well...</p><p>It's Michael Douglas starring as Benjamin Franklin. If you haven't seen the trailer, here it is...</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="365" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/YPG4I2jPSRE" width="439" youtube-src-id="YPG4I2jPSRE"></iframe></div><br /><p>Yeah, I'm not sure how I feel about "it." </p><p>Don't get me wrong. I am definitely excited about Hollywood bringing another Founding Father to life. Although it seems that the subscription-pay "content mill" is getting a wee-bit excessive. </p><p>And Michael Douglas is certainly an accomplished actor. One might call him a "legend." His father, Kirk Douglas, certainly was. I have nothing against Michael Douglas, but... starring as Ben Franklin?</p><p>Thus far, one of the best Ben Franklin portrayals I've seen was that of Tom Wilkinson in the <i>John Adams</i> miniseries. (Ironically, Wilkinson also played Cornwallis in <i>The Patriot</i>). It will be hard to top Wilkinson-as-Franklin in my opinion.</p><p>Time will tell. Maybe Douglas will be fantastic. </p><p>The miniseries premieres April 12 on Apple TV+.</p><p><br /></p>Brian Tubbshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15412421076480479001noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-66829386560631238022024-02-23T16:14:00.003-07:002024-02-23T16:21:12.851-07:00America: The Revived Roman Republic<p>Biblical conspiracy theorists hypothesize about the identity of the "revived Roman Empire" who will host the Antichrist during end times or something like that. </p>I'm not getting into that.<br /><br /><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Many different currents flowed into the ideological stream of the American Founding. The Greco-Roman current is unquestionably one of them. Though much emphasis needs to be added to the Roman part, especially the Stoic philosophy of those noble ancients.</span><br /></span><br />Though I haven't read the book yet, <a href="https://andrewsullivan.substack.com/p/jeffrey-rosen-on-virtue-and-learning?utm_source=podcast-email%2Csubstack&publication_id=61371&post_id=141850757&utm_campaign=email-play-on-substack&utm_medium=email&r=7x8ha&open=false">Jeffrey Rosen's</a> <a href="https://www.amazon.com/Pursuit-Happiness-Classical-Inspired-Founders-ebook/dp/B0C7RNM8SL/ref=tmm_kin_swatch_0">new book</a> seems like one that will shed some much needed light on this particular dynamic. <br /><br />Set all of the conspiracy nonsense aside, one thing America's Founders explicitly seemed intent on was "reviving" not the evil Roman Empire of Caesar's tyranny, but rather that of the noble Stoic Roman Republicans whom those tyrannical Caesars wiped out.<br /><br />But yes, understandably, for their time, what America's Founders did was "new" and thus in some meaningful way "different" than the ancient system that so inspired them.Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-23720267137969469642024-02-16T07:58:00.008-07:002024-02-17T06:56:02.424-07:00Observations on Senator Josh Hawley's Christian Nation Piece Part II<p>See <a href="https://americancreation.blogspot.com/2024/02/observations-on-senator-josh-hawleys.html">Part I here</a>.</p><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;">More from Sen. Hawley:<br /></span><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><blockquote>God gave rulers authority to command and coerce, <b>but only insofar as they protected the liberties of the people. </b>God instructed the people, in turn, to obey “the governing authorities” (Romans 13:1), but only insofar as the rulers honored their liberties. Winthrop envisioned a covenant made with God: Only a godly nation would win God’s favor and prosper under his direction of human affairs. But the political covenant was also—and this is crucial—an agreement between the rulers and the ruled. Should the authorities break the terms of God’s delegation of governance and assault the people’s freedoms, then the people had a right to defend themselves, <b>even to rebel</b>.</blockquote><p>I emphasized what is in <b>bold.</b> This is an extremely loaded and contentious understanding of Romans 13. Great Britain, against whom America rebelled was every bit as "Christian" and "biblically informed" as America was and their political pulpits didn't understand Romans 13 with these qualifications. Arguably their understanding was the more "fundamentalist" in terms of a "literal" reading of the verse and chapter.</p><p>More from Hawley:<br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></p><blockquote><span style="font-family: inherit;">It is a small step from covenants to constitutions, and if this rehearsal of the evolution of early modern political thought brings to mind John Locke, it should. Locke learned covenantal theory from the French Calvinists and converted it (sometimes dubiously) to his own use. Thus, whether from the Puritan settlers or from the Calvinist-influenced Locke, covenant has long been in the American bloodstream. ...</span></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">There is precisely zero evidence that Locke learned covenantal theory from the French Calvinists. The American Founding had many different currents that flowed into its stream and the "Calvinist resisters" (as I like to call them) were certainly one of them. Locke was a much stronger current and he has nothing to do with them. There is a provable connection between Locke and Hobbes (and the Anglican divine Richard Hooker). </span></p><p></p><p>Locke's teachings complete with the "state of nature/social contract and rights" (what he got from Hobbes) did find their way into the founding era "political sermons." But whether such teachings are in according with traditional Christianity is entirely debatable. <br /><br />More from Hawley:<br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></p><blockquote><span style="font-family: inherit;">I have attempted only the barest sketch of the Bible’s influence on America’s most enduring ideals. Others have traced the argument in greater detail. Larry Siedentop’s <em style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Inventing-Individual-Origins-Western-Liberalism/dp/0674979885/?tag=firstthings20-20" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; box-sizing: border-box; color: #990100; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, background-color 0.3s ease 0s, top 0.3s ease 0s, left 0.3s ease 0s;" target="_blank">Inventing the Individual: The Origins of Western Liberalism</a></em> demonstrates the Christian taproot of Western rights. In <em style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; box-sizing: border-box;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Hebrew-Republic-Transformation-European-Political/dp/0674062132/?tag=firstthings20-20" style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; box-sizing: border-box; color: #990100; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.3s ease 0s, background-color 0.3s ease 0s, top 0.3s ease 0s, left 0.3s ease 0s;" target="_blank">The Hebrew Republic: Jewish Sources and the Transformation of European Political Thought</a></em>, Eric Nelson identifies the biblical ground of our political institutions. There is real value in getting this history right, because it tells us what sort of society America has truly been. ...</span></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">I'm not familiar with Siedentop's work (though I hope one day to be), but am intimately familiar with Nelson's. Yes it's a work that all interested in this topic should check out. I'm not sure whether Hawley fully understands or accurately represents it in his brief mention. Nelson's thesis does not <i>focus </i>on America but rather prior <i>European</i> (it's in the title of the book!) writers (many of whom indeed did influence America's founders). And he connects their thought to all of the nations (mainly Western) that comprise "modernity." <br /><br />Nelson's work focuses on one group of thinkers -- the "republicans" -- in contrast to the "liberals." Madison's excerpt from Federalist 10 that I featured in <a href="https://americancreation.blogspot.com/2024/02/observations-on-senator-josh-hawleys.html">Part I</a> well represents the "liberal" perspective. And Madison's liberal view is in tension with the "Hebraic republican" view.<br /><br />The bottom line is this: Madison didn't believe in limits on the accumulation of and the consequent redistribution of wealth. But the Hebraic republicans did. Indeed someone from the "Christian Left" who believe in such would find much ammo for their perspective in Nelson's book. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">Something else notable about the Hebraic republicans featured in Nelson's book is the content of their theology. I'm no theologian, so I'm not one to judge. But for those looking for "sound theology" you really need to question their hermeneutics and exegesis. In short, they argued that the Old Testament taught "republican" form of government that demanded redistribution of wealth in the form of "agrarian laws." (They thought the way the OT dealt with debt and the Jubilee was an agrarian law.)<br /><br />The way I see it, the concepts of "republican" government and "agrarian" laws have nothing to do with the Old Testament. But these thinkers (James Harrington of "Oceana" fame is one of the most notable) argued otherwise. I see them as grafting on post-hoc these Greco-Roman principles to the Old Testament.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">Also note when the authors of the Federalist Papers discussed the concept of republican government precisely NONE of the Hebraic republican rhetoric was invoked. It was mostly Greco-Roman metaphor (just look that their surnames like Publius). </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">A final point of analysis. More from Hawley:<br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span></span></span></span></p><blockquote><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span>... But the nation’s ideals, social institutions, and habits have all been Christianly shaped. And this is a good thing, maybe especially for Americans who are not Christians. Precisely because of the Christian influence, American society has protected the liberty </span><em style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; box-sizing: border-box;">of all</em><span> to speak, to worship, to assemble and petition, to share in self-rule.</span></span></span></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">A little while ago, Hawley stepped in it by spreading a phony quotation attributed to Patrick Henry:<br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; color: black;"></span></span></span></span></p><blockquote><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white; color: black;">“It cannot be emphasized too strongly or too often that this great nation was founded, not by religionists, but by Christians; not on religions, but on the Gospel of Jesus Christ. For this very reason, peoples of other faiths have been afforded asylum, prosperity, and freedom of worship here.”</span> </span></span></span></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The <a href="https://fakehistory.wordpress.com/2009/06/14/fake-quotations-patrick-henry-on-religionists/">actual quotation</a> came from 1956 in a magazine called The Virginian. It was from an article about Patrick Henry. It is good that Hawley doesn't repeat the error in this article. Though I do note that Hawley's sentiment seems influenced by the commentary from The Virginian. (No, it's not plagiarism; I'm just noting the apparent influence.) </span></span></span></p></span></span>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-87288080257288934312024-02-15T16:17:00.007-07:002024-02-16T12:12:27.114-07:00Observations on Senator Josh Hawley's Christian Nation Piece Part I<p>He wrote <a href="https://www.firstthings.com/article/2024/02/our-christian-nation">this for First Things</a>, a respected scholarly journal. Let me note up front I'm not interested in fighting political-cultural war battles over the "Christian Nation" issue. Plenty of folks on "the other side" have given Hawley hell over his positions here. Though, Hawley does posit his position in the context of fighting a political-culture war over this issue for <i>his side.</i> </p><div>With that, I will make some observations on the soundness of his historical claims with a focus on his political-theology. </div><div><br /></div><div>Let's start with this passage from the good Senator:<br /><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e; font-family: "Sorts Mill Goudy", Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif; font-size: 18px;"></span><blockquote><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e; font-family: "Sorts Mill Goudy", Georgia, "Times New Roman", Times, serif;">... The Founders read Roman historians, yes. Some were influenced by Enlightenment philosophies. But the Bible has been the main source of our national ideals. From the age of the New England Puritans to the Great Awakening that prepared the ground for revolution, Scripture has molded our common life from the first. Consider: Our ideal of the individual has Christian roots. So too does our constitutionalism. Our great traditions of progressive reform were animated by an ardent Christian spirit—as was conservative resistance to their excesses. Even in our most bitter conflicts, Christian culture has been America’s common ground.</span></blockquote><p>The term "national ideals" is amorphous political speak. I think where his claim is at its strongest is that Christianity was important at the cultural, local, decentralized level. Where it's at its weakest is that the ideas are responsible for the Declaration of Independence and US Constitution. One thing I do appreciate about the claim is that it (properly) intimates there are various ways of understanding the faith. A "Christian Left" for the progressives and a "Christian Right" who resist.<br /><br />But what we will then see is that his idealized politics ends up "coloring" his theological understanding of Christianity, in "questionable" ways. His history likewise is cherry picked and idealized. <br /><br />Next passage:<br /></p><blockquote><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;">Conservatives have their own version of the secular myth, one that usually comes with appeals to the market or James Madison or both. Some conservatives—the neoliberal types—argue that free-market exchange supplies all the common meaning we will ever need. We can unite in the cause of moneymaking, they say. But you don’t need a society for that. Corporations and trading zones will suffice. Other conservatives look to the Constitution for salvation, as if that document were a perpetual motion machine that can operate on its own, no common affections or moral purpose needed. Set faction against faction and the republic will endure forever! But Madison never said any such thing. He presumed a baseline of shared culture, language, and moral outlook—a very robust baseline, by modern standards. The truth is that no constitution, however well designed, can unite a people who do not hold a common conception of the good. No system of checks and balances can replace a common moral vision.</span> </span></blockquote><p>I will let people read <a href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed10.asp">Madison's Federalist 10</a> to which was above alluded. Hawley puts words into Madison's mouth he never said, but on "set[ting] faction against faction," THIS is what Madison said:</p><p><span face="Arial, Verdana, sans-serif" style="background-color: white; font-size: 14.1558px; text-indent: 25px;"></span></p><blockquote><p><span style="background-color: white; text-indent: 25px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">By a faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adversed to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; text-indent: 25px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of faction: the one, by removing its causes; the other, by controlling its effects.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; text-indent: 25px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">There are again two methods of removing the causes of faction: the one, by destroying the liberty which is essential to its existence; the other, by giving to every citizen the same opinions, the same passions, and the same interests.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; text-indent: 25px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">It could never be more truly said than of the first remedy, that it was worse than the disease. Liberty is to faction what air is to fire, an aliment without which it instantly expires. But it could not be less folly to abolish liberty, which is essential to political life, because it nourishes faction, than it would be to wish the annihilation of air, which is essential to animal life, because it imparts to fire its destructive agency.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; text-indent: 25px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The second expedient is as impracticable as the first would be unwise. As long as the reason of man continues fallible, and he is at liberty to exercise it, different opinions will be formed. As long as the connection subsists between his reason and his self-love, his opinions and his passions will have a reciprocal influence on each other; and the former will be objects to which the latter will attach themselves. The diversity in the faculties of men, from which the rights of property originate, is not less an insuperable obstacle to a uniformity of interests. The protection of these faculties is the first object of government. From the protection of different and unequal faculties of acquiring property, the possession of different degrees and kinds of property immediately results; and from the influence of these on the sentiments and views of the respective proprietors, ensues a division of the society into different interests and parties.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; text-indent: 25px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The latent causes of faction are thus sown in the nature of man; and we see them everywhere brought into different degrees of activity, according to the different circumstances of civil society. A zeal for different opinions concerning religion, concerning government, and many other points, as well of speculation as of practice; an attachment to different leaders ambitiously contending for pre-eminence and power; or to persons of other descriptions whose fortunes have been interesting to the human passions, have, in turn, divided mankind into parties, inflamed them with mutual animosity, and rendered them much more disposed to vex and oppress each other than to co-operate for their common good. So strong is this propensity of mankind to fall into mutual animosities, that where no substantial occasion presents itself, the most frivolous and fanciful distinctions have been sufficient to kindle their unfriendly passions and excite their most violent conflicts. But the most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property. Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation, and involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of the government.</span></span></p></blockquote><p>This does resonate with the notion of setting factions against one another in a pluralistic, commercial republic. So maybe the conservative (or "neoliberal") "secular myth" has something to it at least with regards to Madison. <br /><br />More from Sen. Hawley:<br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;"></span></span></p><blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;">... The Romans prized property rights—for certain people—and the Greeks and Romans both praised the liberty of the citizen to share in ruling the city, but the advent of </span><em style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: border-box; color: #4d4e4e;">individual</em><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;"> liberty accompanied by personal rights awaited the New Testament’s announcement of freedom in Christ. “For freedom Christ has set us free,” the apostle Paul announced. This was deeply personal freedom of a radically new kind.</span></span></p></blockquote><p>I think it's a fair point to credit Christianity for laying a fertile ground for the concept of individual, which as Hawley accurately notes, <span style="font-family: inherit;">"[t]<span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;">he West would spend centuries working out its implications," but it's simply mistaken or bad theology to attempt to credit Paul in these passages for preaching political liberty. That would come much, much later. The "centuries." Paul noted this in the context of also telling slaves to obey their masters, after all.<br /><br />More from Sen. Hawley:<br /></span><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;"></span></span></p><blockquote><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;">... The Ten Commandments (for example) are moral duties, to be sure, but they also adumbrate individual rights. They define the </span><em style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: border-box; color: #4d4e4e;">obligations</em><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;"> of individuals, which entail the political </span><em style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: border-box; color: #4d4e4e;">freedoms</em><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;"> individuals must enjoy in order to meet them. Over time, Christian theorists would come to see that God’s injunctions require the rights to worship, to marry, to pursue an honest profession, and to live generally in a manner pleasing to the Lord.</span></span></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">The term "over time" is what saves this passage. Yes, it took a long time. Any honest reading of the Ten Commandments though in particular are in tension with these freedoms, even if they are ultimately reconcilable from a Christian and biblical perspective. America's Founders were clear that the "rights to worship" applied universally, not just to Christians. This includes the inalienable right to break them by worshipping what some might see as false gods. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">More from Sen. Hawley:<br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"></span></span></span></span></p><blockquote><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;">Then there is constitutionalism, another Christian contribution to our nation’s identity. On board the </span><em style="-webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased; background-color: #fcfcfc; box-sizing: border-box; color: #4d4e4e;">Arbella</em><span style="background-color: #fcfcfc; color: #4d4e4e;"> as it was sailing for a new world, John Winthrop told his fellow colonists that they were making a covenant with God; they would be a “city upon a hill,” a light to all the world, a community committed to God’s law. Winthrop came by the idea of covenant naturally. Christians had been reading it in their Bibles for centuries. God made a covenant with Noah, and then with Abraham, and then with Moses and David after them. The God of the Bible was a covenant-making God. By the 1600s, Christian theorists had come to explain God’s purposes for government in terms of covenant.</span></span></span></span></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">I'm of the mind that America was "founded" in 1776, not 1619. The period to which Hawley refers was when America was actually Great Britain. These covenants were also done prior Britain's own Glorious Revolution (which led them in a more democratic-republican direction) and were explicitly done under the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings, one thing against which America <i>especially</i> rebelled. </span></p></div>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-81590245285171772302024-01-02T00:12:00.001-07:002024-01-02T00:12:25.320-07:00Who Were the Unitarians?<p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">Much has been written here about the "unitarians" of the Founding era. John Adams averred he was one, as did Abigail Adams. But were they Christians?</span></p><div class="tr_bq" style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br />Well, they certainly considered themselves Christians, and protested quite vociferously when accused of not being Christians, usually by competing "orthodox" clergy.<br /><br />It all came to a head around 1815, when William Ellery Channing---generally regarded then (as now) as exemplary of that era's unitarianism---answered some prevailing charges against unitarianism in<br /><a href="http://www.americanunitarian.org/lettertothacher.htm" style="color: red; text-decoration-line: none;"><br />A Letter to the Rev. Samuel C. Thacher on the Aspersions Contained in a Late Number of the Panoplist, on the Ministers of Boston and the Vicinity</a>.</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: inherit;"><img alt="Image result for 1815 A LETTER TO THE REV. SAMUEL C. THACHER ON THE ASPERSIONS CONTAINED IN A LATE NUMBER OF THE PANOPLIST, ON THE MINISTERS OF BOSTON AND THE VICINITY" height="400" src="https://www.bibliophagist.com/pictures/medium/13188.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 1px solid rgb(231, 231, 231); box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 1px 1px 5px; padding: 5px;" width="256" /><br /><br />Now, perhaps the defining feature of unitarianism was that it didn't believe in the Trinity---as John Adams noted, 1 + 1 + 1 would equal Three, not One. Hence the term "unitarian."<br /><br />There were other orthodox doctrines rejected, too, namely, as Channing wrote:</span></div><blockquote style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">"I fear, that the Author of the Lord's prayer will, according to this rule, be driven as a heretick from the very church which he has purchased with his own blood. In that well known prayer I can discover no reference to the "inspiration of the holy scriptures, to the supreme divinity of the Son and Holy Ghost, to the atonement and intercession of Jesus Christ, to the native and total depravity of the unregenerate, and to the reality and necessity of special divine grace to renew and sanctify the souls of men;" and these, let it be remembered, are _five_ out of the _six_ articles which are given by the Reviewer as fundamental articles of a christian's faith."</span></span></blockquote><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.4px;"><br /><br />So that's what they <i>didn't</i> believe. So what did they believe? Channing wrote:<br /></span><br style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;" /><blockquote class="tr_bq" style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><i>"The word UNITARIANISM, as denoting this opposition to Trinitarianism, undoubtedly expresses the character of a considerable part of the ministers of this town and its vicinity, and the commonwealth...We both agreed in our late conference, that a majority of our brethren believe, that Jesus Christ is more than man, that he existed before the world, that he literally came from heaven to save our race, that he sustains other offices than those of a teacher and witness to the truth, and that he still acts for our benefit, and is our intercessor with the Father. This we agreed to be the prevalent sentiment of our brethren."</i> </span></blockquote><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: 15.4px;"><br /><br />Is that Christian enough? Certainly not to the orthodox clergy and various laymen of the time who stood in opposition to them.<br /><br />Probably not Christian enough for most Christian theologians of any stripe today, certainly not evangelical or orthodox.<br /><br />But perhaps Christian enough for the sociologist or the historian. "Unitarian Christian" is my own preference, both descriptively and definitively, at least for our best understanding in this day and age. [Channing and others used "'rational' Christians," but in our day, I'm not sure that's helpful or descriptive enough, although it's certainly a proper term. Channing himself published a popular tract in 1819 called <i><a href="http://people.wku.edu/jan.garrett/channsht.htm" style="color: red; text-decoration-line: none;">Unitarian Christianity</a></i>.]<br /><br />Do read Channing's letter for yourself, as there's more than can be sketched or excerpted here. It offers an excellent window into what is called the Unitarian Controversy today, and clearly outlines the issues and the players, a clarity we need to consider the unitarians properly in the scheme of things.</span><br style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The primary qualitative <i>sine qua non </i>for an understanding of unitarianism as Christianity is a belief that the Bible is literally the Word of God--even if corrupted over the centuries by churches, churchmen and assorted prophets and scholars, even if well-intentioned. The following excerpt from Channing contains too many ellipses [by a <a href="http://uubgky.org/author/jan-garrett/" style="color: red; text-decoration-line: none;">Dr. Jan Garrett</a>] to be taken as a primary source, but it conveys enough of the unitarian view of scripture to serve as a starting point.</span></span><br style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;" /><blockquote style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"><br /><i>1 Thes. v. 21: "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good."<br /><br /><br />I shall [try to explain] the [methods we use] in interpreting the Scriptures . . . and . . . some of the [teachings] that [they] . . . seem to us clearly to express.<br />I. We regard the Scriptures as the records of God's . . . revelations to mankind, . . . Whatever [ideas] seem to us to be clearly taught in the Scriptures, we receive without reserve . . . We do not, however, attach equal importance to all the books in this collection.</i></blockquote><blockquote style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"><i>Our religion . . . lies chiefly in the New Testament. . . . whatever [Jesus . . . ] taught, either during his personal ministry, or by his . . . Apostles, we regard as of divine authority . . . This authority, which we give to the Scriptures, is a reason . . . for studying them with peculiar care, and for inquiring . . . into the principles of interpretation . . . by which their . . . meaning may be [determined] . . .</i></blockquote><blockquote style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"><i>Our [primary guideline] in interpreting Scripture is this, that the Bible is a book written for [human beings], in [human] language . . . and that its meaning is to be sought in the same [way] as that of other books. . . . God, when he speaks to the human race, [abides by] the established rules of speaking and writing. . . . Now all books, and all conversation, require in the reader or hearer the constant exercise of reason; . . . their . . . [meaning] is only to be obtained by continual comparison and inference. Human language, . . . admits various interpretations; and every word and every sentence must be modified and explained according to the subject which is discussed, according to the purposes, feelings, circumstances, and principles of the writer, and according to the [features] of the language . . . he uses. These are acknowledged principles in the interpretation of human writings . . .</i></blockquote><br style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;">One may protest this contains too much theological leeway to be considered "Christian," but as one unitarian argued in the 19th century, it certainly qualifies as Protestant!</span>Tom Van Dykehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07121072404143877596noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-2188265835311325582023-12-25T20:10:00.004-07:002023-12-25T20:10:49.019-07:00On This Night in 1776, Washington and the Continental Army Save the Revolution<p><span style="color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, Segoe UI, Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, Noto Sans, sans-serif, Helvetica Neue, Arial, Apple Color Emoji, Segoe UI Emoji, Segoe UI Symbol, Noto Color Emoji;"><span style="white-space-collapse: preserve;"><i>"Christmas, 6 P.M….It is fearfully cold and raw and a snow-storm setting in. The wind is northeast and beats in the faces of the men. It will be a terrible night for the soldiers who have no shoes. Some of them have tied old rags around their feet, but I have not heard a man complain….I have never seen Washington so determined as he is now….He stands on the bank of the stream, wrapped in his cloak, superintending the landing of his troops. He is calm and collected, but very determined. The storm is changing to sleet and cuts like a knife…."</i> (from the Journal of Colonel John Fitzgerald, Continental Army, December 25, 1776)</span></span></p><p><span style="color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; white-space-collapse: preserve;">On Christmas Night of 1776, approximately 2,400 soldiers of the Continental Army huddled together against the biting cold on the banks of the Delaware River. </span></p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Under the cloak of darkness and the relentless assault of winter, they were poised to navigate the treacherous, icy waters of the Delaware. Their destination: a surprise attack on the formidable Hessian mercenaries – a group renowned for their ruthless efficiency and, on a couple of occasions, brutality.</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; white-space-collapse: preserve;">These were indeed the darkest hours for the fledgling American cause. At the onset of summer, General George Washington commanded a force of over 20,000. Now, thanks to disease, defeat, and desertion, fewer than 3,000 remained. </p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; white-space-collapse: preserve;">Yet, in this hour of despair...</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; white-space-collapse: preserve;">General Washington's determination and the courage of the Continental Army would save the American cause. </p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; white-space-collapse: preserve;">You can read more about Washington's crossing of the Delaware and the battle at Trenton at Mount Vernon's website...</p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; white-space-collapse: preserve;"><b><a href="https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-revolutionary-war/washingtons-revolutionary-war-battles/the-trenton-princeton-campaign/" target="_blank">The Trenton-Princeton Campaign</a></b></p>Brian Tubbshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15412421076480479001noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-53130852374980686222023-12-06T07:57:00.000-07:002023-12-06T07:57:08.616-07:00‘To fear God: Masonic thought at the Founding’<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #073763; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">For a glimpse into Masonic thought at the creation of the United States, I share with <i>American Creation</i> a small portion of a sermon delivered before a group of Freemasons in 1784 on St. John the Evangelist Day, one of two feast days traditionally celebrated in Freemasonry. December 27 has been reserved for historic occasions, such as the founding of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1813; and standard events, such as the following church sermon, alike.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><b>To Fear God:</b></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><b>The 1784 St. John’s Day Sermon </b></span></div><div><span style="color: #073763; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; color: #073763; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXxDp9MdyzNtmVV9mM8Y9kTjLfnF7MHg_L7V1HstbgbP-MKJMDJXoFW38IsNAY9rLMlghTMRoD4LgigaGLGTHndWW2fm6fcnUxYRoLhjN-Joeexfv82wmux5Kr1C8guhlrHE0tRxyvKAQdYaiyYZr39XNZGnEGeIqD-oFHwgs86Rz_-G712UHMSdSEUEID/s1136/ogden%20sermon%20title%20page.jpeg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1136" data-original-width="631" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXxDp9MdyzNtmVV9mM8Y9kTjLfnF7MHg_L7V1HstbgbP-MKJMDJXoFW38IsNAY9rLMlghTMRoD4LgigaGLGTHndWW2fm6fcnUxYRoLhjN-Joeexfv82wmux5Kr1C8guhlrHE0tRxyvKAQdYaiyYZr39XNZGnEGeIqD-oFHwgs86Rz_-G712UHMSdSEUEID/w356-h640/ogden%20sermon%20title%20page.jpeg" width="356" /></a></div><br /><span style="color: #660000;">On St. John the Evangelist Day 1784 at Morristown, New Jersey The Rev. Uzal Ogden delivered a sermon before Lodge No. 10. As best I can determine, he was not a Freemason, but with the surname Ogden, it is easy to see he had family connections to the fraternity, most probably to Moses Ogden and others at St. John’s Lodge in Newark. As for Lodge No. 10, this is the mysterious lodge in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, chartered by the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania. </span></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="color: #660000; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgetq58-ULXBF1D_nMPBi2NMdy3HS8rMjdx-5CZJbHoKjMKFwdWklir672Nui6FPJP4yg-oC9updLMiiQ1Fm6IDQwDUu9l1FtAytHM408RW-iSztIDJAzu6H6qvtK8UFxw8BKsxl_CzM7rmxSPeGX8-tO-Xj_dMIUeSQnzKn-I1ss5EenETCkYYwmOnjW0g/s787/1781%20GL%20of%20Pennsylvania.jpeg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="328" data-original-width="787" height="168" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgetq58-ULXBF1D_nMPBi2NMdy3HS8rMjdx-5CZJbHoKjMKFwdWklir672Nui6FPJP4yg-oC9updLMiiQ1Fm6IDQwDUu9l1FtAytHM408RW-iSztIDJAzu6H6qvtK8UFxw8BKsxl_CzM7rmxSPeGX8-tO-Xj_dMIUeSQnzKn-I1ss5EenETCkYYwmOnjW0g/w400-h168/1781%20GL%20of%20Pennsylvania.jpeg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: justify;"><i><span style="color: black;">From the 1781 Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania Book of Proceedings. It’s a safe bet that this Dr. Blatchley is Bro. Ebenezer Blatchley, a Past Master of Lodge No. 10 who, in 1787, retroactively signed onto the formation of the Grand Lodge of New Jersey. Little is known about the lodge, except that it was chartered in 1767 by the Provincial Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania (Antients) and was empowered to meet within five miles of Basking Ridge.</span></i></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><span style="color: #660000;">The reverend</span></span><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">, an Episcopalian, was known to preach at Trinity Church in Newark and at the more famous Trinity Church in Manhattan, as well as at St. John’s Church in Elizabethtown. He graduated from Princeton University at age 18, and was ordained in 1773 at 29. He was an experienced speaker by age 40 when he preached this sermon to the local Freemasons, and he did so without notes. The reason we have it today is the lodge requested a written copy for publication, causing the reverend to put quill to paper after the fact. Historically, we readers find ourselves one year after the Revolutionary War ended and almost two years before the founding of the Grand Lodge of New Jersey.</span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">This sermon is far too long to reproduce here, so I will summarize one of its four key ideas: “to notice what it is to ‘fear God.’”</span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">What is it to fear God? When the candidate for the degrees of Freemasonry seeks admission to any of New Jersey’s lodges, the Worshipful Master orders that he be in “the fear of the Lord” upon entering. It must be important because it’s in all three degrees. It is more specific than belief in a higher power. What does it mean?</span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">To fear God, Ogden said, is to love or to serve Him. He illustrates this with multiple quotations of Scripture, including two attributed to King Solomon: “It shall be well with those who fear God.” (Ecclesiastes 8:12) And “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.” (Proverbs 9:10)</span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">By the fear of God, he continues, “we are to understand a due observance of religion, which it may be said, consists of three particulars: knowledge, faith, and practice.”</span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">“The first principle of religious knowledge requisite we should be acquainted with,” Ogden says, “is that there exists some Being superior to ourselves, who gave excellence to Creation, who inhabits eternity, whose knowledge is infinite, whose presence fills all space, whose power preserves and sustains all nature, and who possesses all possible perfection.”</span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">“Can we behold the heavens above or the earth beneath,” he adds, “without acknowledging the infinite power, wisdom, and goodness displayed by some, though to us, invisible Architect?” </span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">Faith, Ogden’s second particular in fearing God, also is the first of the principal rounds of the ladder—Faith, Hope, and Charity—reaching to Heaven that Freemasonry discusses in its First Degree. Ogden begins: “But it is to no purpose we are informed of these things unless we believe them. ‘Without faith,’ it is said, ‘it is impossible to please God, for he that comes to Him must believe that He is, and that He is a rewarder of those who diligently seek him.’”</span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">“To hope for the friendship of God,” he adds, “while we disclaim His authority…would be irrational, as futile, as it would be to…behold the light if deprived of the organs of vision!”</span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;">Of the third of his particulars—practice—Rev. Ogden is all about character. “Although it is most reasonable we should offer to our Almighty Creator and divine benefactor the oblation of our hearts; and though Christianity is calculated to deliver us from infamy and woe, and to exalt us to honor and happiness, how often are its benefits rejected?” he asks. “How many are there, even of those professing to revere this dispensation of mercy, who live regardless of its precepts, and who, in their actions with men are so far from ‘doing as they would be done unto,’ that no feelings of humanity, no sense of honor, nor any fear of divine vengeance, nor any thing but present punishment can divert them from acts of dishonesty, barbarity, and flagrant impiety?” </span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #660000; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #073763; font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">While there is no obvious documentation of Rev. Uzal Ogden being a Freemason, it is clear that Lodge No. 10 chose its speaker for St. John the Evangelist Day wisely. He anticipated his audience and crafted his remarks accordingly, and we are fortunate the lodge opted to have his sermon printed so posterity may enjoy it.</span></div><div><span style="color: #073763; font-family: helvetica; font-size: x-large;"> </span></div>Magpie Masonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01390264410632162085noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-88626222813673874452023-11-10T02:08:00.006-07:002023-11-10T02:08:48.945-07:00John Locke on Romans 13 and the duty to obey the government<p> <span style="background-color: #fcf4f7; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 17.6px;">Today, John Locke is held to be an Enlightenment philosopher, "Enlightenment" used as rationalism in contradistinction to religious faith and the Christian Bible. However, the Founders largely considered him simply a very smart and elegant Christian thinker. What is not largely known even among scholars is that Locke's final life project, after the [anonymous!] publishing of his historic </span><i style="font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 17.6px;">Two Treatises of Government</i><span style="background-color: #fcf4f7; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 17.6px;">, was a study of Paul the Apostle's Epistles.</span></p><div class="post-body entry-content" id="post-body-8073922497393467870" itemprop="description articleBody" style="background-color: #fcf4f7; font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 17.6px; line-height: 1.4; position: relative; width: 680px;"><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Re Romans 13:1</div><div><br /><blockquote class="tr_bq"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-style: italic;">"Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God; the powers that be are ordained of God. Whosoever, therefore, resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God; and they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation."</span></blockquote><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">this passage was and is the most troublesome political passage in the New Testament, and was responsible for literally millions of words exchanged on the question of political liberty. Men like John Calvin largely took it as an absolute prohibition against anything resembling revolution or revolt against even the meanest of rulers.</span></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">John Locke's treatment of Romans 13 is pretty straightforward: Christians are not exempt from obeying lawful authority just by virtue of being Christian. They have to obey the same laws as everybody else.</span></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">But on what is "lawful authority," Locke says Paul the apostle "is wholly silent, and says nothing of it," because for Paul or Jesus "to meddle with that, would have been to decide of civil rights, contrary to the design and business of the Gospel"---which of course was the business of salvation, of preparing for the next world, not this one.</span></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Locke notes that it was Paul's intention and prudence, that such "sauciness, sedition or treason" was, in those times of Roman "insolent and vicious" rule, a "scandal to be cautiously kept off the Christian doctrine!" [The exclamation point is Locke's.]</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: inherit;">Thus Paul's admonition is not one of political or theological right, but merely of prudence.</span></span></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Founding era preacher William Ellery Channing <a href="http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/transcendentalism/authors/wechanning/slavery6.html" style="color: red; text-decoration-line: none;">made a similar argument</a> about why the New Testament didn't explicitly ban slavery: "a religion, preaching freedom to the slave, would have shaken the social fabric to its foundation, and would have armed against itself the whole power of the state." </span>Jesus didn't preach violent revolution, that his church would be arming itself against the whole power of the state. Indeed, we recall that many were disappointed he wasn't that kind of Messiah.</div><div style="background-color: white;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: white;">But that is not a Biblical endorsement of slavery either:</div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><blockquote class="tr_bq">The perversion of Scripture to the support of slavery is singularly inexcusable in this country. Paul not only commanded slaves to obey their masters. He delivered these precepts: "Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God; the powers that be are ordained of God. Whosoever, therefore, resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God; and they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation." This passage was written in the time of Nero. It teaches passive obedience to despotism more strongly than any text teaches the lawfulness of slavery. Accordingly, it has been quoted for ages by the supporters of arbitrary power, and made the stronghold of tyranny. </blockquote><blockquote class="tr_bq">Did our fathers acquiesce in the most obvious interpretation of this text? Because the first Christians were taught to obey despotic rule, did our fathers feel as if Christianity had stripped men of their rights? Did they argue, that tyranny was to be excused, because forcible opposition to it is in most cases wrong? Did they argue, that absolute power ceases to be unjust, because, as a general rule, it is the duty of subjects to obey? Did they infer that bad institutions ought to be perpetual, because the subversion of them by force will almost always inflict greater evil than it removes? </blockquote><blockquote class="tr_bq">No; they were wiser interpreters of God's Word. They believed that despotism was a wrong, notwithstanding the general obligation upon its subjects to obey; and that whenever a whole people should so feel the wrong as to demand its removal, the time for removing it had fully come. Such is the school in which we here have been brought up. To us, it is no mean proof of the divine original of Christianity, that it teaches human brotherhood and favors human rights; and yet, on the ground of two or three passages, which admit different constructions, we make Christianity the minister of slavery, the forger of chains for those whom it came to make free.</blockquote></div><div style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit;">Thus Romans 13 can turn Christianity into the ally of tyranny by its acquiescence to it. Further, sayeth Locke, the "lawful authority" question must be decided by worldly standards, to be "determined by the laws and constitution of their country."</span></div><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br />And so, if a legal argument to separate from Britain's constitutional monarchy could be made---and indeed the 27 "repeated injuries and usurpations" in the Declaration of Independence like "For imposing taxes on us without our consent" (taxation without representation) was such an attempt---then there was no theological impediment per Romans 13 to such a separation.<br /><br />Further, Locke asserts "the doctrine of Christianity was the doctrine of liberty," using for his example that </span><span style="font-family: inherit;">Christians were "freed" from observing the "Mosaical" law.</span><br /><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br />In other words, Locke is dispensing with any supernatural argument that unlawful rulers should be obeyed because it's God's will because Romans 13 says so. According to John Locke, it doesn't say that.</span><br /><div style="background-color: white; font-size: 15.4px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-color: white; font-size: 15.4px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">From Locke's <a href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REAAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1&hl=en#v=onepage&q=resisteth&f=false" style="color: red; font-style: italic; text-decoration-line: none;">A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, First and Second Corinthians, Romans, and Ephesians</a>:</span></div><div style="background-color: white; font-size: 15.4px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div><div style="background-color: white; font-size: 15.4px;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">[<small> <span style="font-style: italic;">HT to Ben Abbott for the citation and link.</span></small>]</span></div><blockquote><br /><span style="font-size: x-small;">CHAP. XIII. 1—7.<a href="https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/locke-the-works-vol-7-essays-and-notes-on-st-pauls-epistles?q=%22is+wholly+silent%2C+and+says+nothing+of+it%2C%22#toc" style="color: #b51200; text-decoration-line: none;">↩</a></span></blockquote><blockquote><span style="font-size: x-small;">This section contains the duty of christians to the civil magistrate: for the understanding this right, we must consider these two things:</span></blockquote><blockquote><span style="font-size: x-small;">1. That these rules are given to christians, that were members of a heathen commonwealth, to show them that, by being made christians and subjects of Christ’s kingdom, they were not, by the freedom of the gospel, exempt from any ties of duty, or subjection, which by the laws of their country, they were in, and ought to observe, to the government and magistrates of it, though heathens, any more than any of their heathen subjects. But, on the other side, these rules did not tie them up, any more than any of their fellow-citizens, who were not christians, from any of those due rights, which, by the law of nature, or the constitutions of their country, belonged to them. Whatsoever any other of their fellow-subjects, being in a like station with them, might do without sinning, that they were not abridged of, but might do still, being christians. The rule here being the same with that given by St. Paul, 1 Cor. vii. 17, “As God has called every one, so let him walk.” The rules of civil right and wrong, that he is to walk by, are to him the same they were before.</span><br /><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: x-small;">2. That St. Paul, in this direction to the romans, does not so much describe the magistrates that then were in Rome, as tells whence they, and all magistrates, everywhere, have their authority; and for what end they have it, and should use it. And this he does, as becomes his prudence, to avoid bringing any imputation on christians, from heathen magistrates, especially those insolent and vicious ones of Rome, who could not brook any thing to be told them as their duty, and so might be apt to interpret such plain truths, laid down in a dogmatical way, into sauciness, sedition, or treason, a scandal cautiously to be kept off from the christian doctrine! nor does he, in what he says, in the least flatter the roman emperor, let it be either Claudius, as some think, or Nero, as others, who then was in possession of that empire. For he here speaks of the higher powers, i. e. the supreme, civil power, which is, in every commonwealth, derived from God, and is of the same extent everywhere, i. e. is absolute and unlimited by any thing, but the end for which God gave it, viz. the good of the people, sincerely pursued, according to the best of the skill of those who share that power, and so not to be resisted. But, how men come by a rightful title to this power, or who has that title, he is wholly silent, and says nothing of it. To [405] have meddled with that, would have been to decide of civil rights, contrary to the design and business of the gospel, and the example of our Saviour, who refused meddling in such cases with this decisive question, “Who made me a judge, or divider, over you?”<i> Luke xii. 14.</i></span></blockquote></div></div>Tom Van Dykehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07121072404143877596noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-5144015442001765742023-07-19T12:05:00.007-06:002023-07-20T10:39:34.457-06:00How Dr. Waligore Categorizes Different Theologies<p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgBySt_xUG1UO1DqY0TQQp-nkhaavzJuK-4BmvgZoXv5wjB1qUpWw04pBBbTHfqkfvGrrzFjY0d9_Tm7cKrWhp8ebauMvUNN3eicV7VxUQZbGmbwpS7HdjDEj4e2SN8qQ-AlIxdyabvc0NKQJm9wGts3DRSWy6pV4LHrUnDbrRgR5mxOlfYmnh66DW81SGr" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="1784" data-original-width="1169" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgBySt_xUG1UO1DqY0TQQp-nkhaavzJuK-4BmvgZoXv5wjB1qUpWw04pBBbTHfqkfvGrrzFjY0d9_Tm7cKrWhp8ebauMvUNN3eicV7VxUQZbGmbwpS7HdjDEj4e2SN8qQ-AlIxdyabvc0NKQJm9wGts3DRSWy6pV4LHrUnDbrRgR5mxOlfYmnh66DW81SGr" width="157" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEijOZs7ukxR5WFnDsH2rOyMPs-oIgzp0I0GWgIcu5m9Jcb-R1aI-skj2ZvNk0UUFbDzD7NJKNC310sfYKlpUfqb-cslSnsMqAf4dnk6jEfW3ONrNf1GIn0SmkfVlYLDhupLa2nN6ogCMuIy5CwgAe05kPqnxraUwuclVvYwCk65pfXg316dS97WSsoVVBlJ" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="1788" data-original-width="1169" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEijOZs7ukxR5WFnDsH2rOyMPs-oIgzp0I0GWgIcu5m9Jcb-R1aI-skj2ZvNk0UUFbDzD7NJKNC310sfYKlpUfqb-cslSnsMqAf4dnk6jEfW3ONrNf1GIn0SmkfVlYLDhupLa2nN6ogCMuIy5CwgAe05kPqnxraUwuclVvYwCk65pfXg316dS97WSsoVVBlJ" width="157" /></a></div><br />This post is intended to be a brief overview of <a href="https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/the-spirituality-of-the-english-and-american-deists-joseph-waligore/1142346593">Dr. Joseph Waligore's new book on deism</a>. I plan on having much more to say, but in this post, I try to hit some main points.<div><br /><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Waligore observes and constructs a number of different theological categories in his analysis to compare and contrast with the theology of deism. "Christianity" generally requires belief in orthodox Trinitarian doctrine and authority of the entire Bible (it's mainly Protestant Christianity that is being analyzed, so it would be the 66 book Protestant canon). </span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">There is one kind of "traditional Christianity" that, for lack of better words, is neither "freethinking" nor "</span>ecumenical<span style="font-size: 12pt;">" on doctrine and dogma. Even though many more than two traditions within Christianity could be invoked to serve this purpose, it's mainly Calvinism and High Church Anglicanism that serve as useful guideposts in his book. (Though other forms, like Arminianism are also analyzed.)</span><br /><br /><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Waligore observes the voyage of (Protestant) Christianity to Deism, by noting two OTHER <b>Christian</b> traditions that in the 17th Century started to engage in "doctrinal freethinking" for lack of a better term. The <i><a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cambridge-platonists/">Cambridge Platonists</a></i> and the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudinarian">Latitudinarians</a></i> (the name refers to "latitude" on matters of doctrine). Though the reason why they merit the label "Christian" is again, they tended to endorse orthodox Trinitarian doctrine and the authority of the entire Bible.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-size: 12pt;">One potential point of criticism is as much as we want figures to neatly fit into different "boxes" that we construct for a better, more accurate understanding, is that people often don't neatly fit into those boxes. For instance, <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/clarke/">Samuel Clarke</a> gets put in the "Latitudinarian" not "Unitarian" box; though arguably he could fit into either one. The boxes tend to bleed into one another. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-size: 12pt;">But the pages I included in the photos on the Cambridge Platonists illustrate such freethinking (many of them seemed to flirt with some kind of modified universalism, and belief that human souls pre-existed and exercised their will prior to their physical birth, among other things). Yet, they remain "Christian" because, again, they claimed their heterodox ideas didn't contradict either the Bible or the doctrines of the Church of England.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-size: 12pt;">By the time we get to the Unitarians, they lose the label "Christian" because of their disbelief in the Trinity. But Waligore stresses that they tended to have more respect for the entire Bible than the deists did. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-size: 12pt;">And that sets the stage for an intense, meticulous analysis of the various forms of deism. And the chief message of this book is that while there are certain points that can be drawn to form a "deist" creed, belief in a non-intervening watchmaker God was actually a minority belief among the deists. Deism came in many varieties and most of them believed in a Providential God. And for those who did believe in Providence, they much more freely "picked and chose" what parts of the Bible they thought legitimately revealed and which parts they thought not. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Waligore also stresses that while the deists in general venerated man's reason as a discerner of truth, the notion that God was ultimately benevolent was the primary lens through which they viewed theology. Anything part of traditional Christianity or any other creed that they deemed made God look less than </span>perfectly<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> benevolent was cast aside.</span></span></span></div>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-14964210773410627072023-07-19T06:02:00.005-06:002023-07-19T06:11:08.043-06:00Dr. Joseph Waligore's New Book on Deism<p><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEikzMteGNwSWs8ayQl7N3YdElCMAp2_sc6t3GWSjTzohfu5BMcExEVMkDrtN_Jla43mjFNqCJ1nDh-jMfFqtpdLy8SzpbuF72MLqrrRXbzWXDBVGel_BAyVHghigYVWYo85-MhEY2-coJgw6bqZ4mU1gZXidpqZ68v6NlrXsJKhy_-v64uHU0_0tg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="222" data-original-width="160" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEikzMteGNwSWs8ayQl7N3YdElCMAp2_sc6t3GWSjTzohfu5BMcExEVMkDrtN_Jla43mjFNqCJ1nDh-jMfFqtpdLy8SzpbuF72MLqrrRXbzWXDBVGel_BAyVHghigYVWYo85-MhEY2-coJgw6bqZ4mU1gZXidpqZ68v6NlrXsJKhy_-v64uHU0_0tg" width="173" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgfHP-BS7WdetXFNzaO6JryRgT6vNKoz8c1316caz5D1mXi-MlnqfbIwMNLywAiftNISNAivNiyxiPRyqBzFlfpmRv8XPyPfVX8ugiTasMWb_mxDV-4RmssOXanV5kVF-wEi4ADkQnKcTpeo6ooCG1QmKXlQGnVSj_iE6KaOD0oZTdQLZhHBs4fnw" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;" target="_blank"><img alt="" data-original-height="960" data-original-width="720" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgfHP-BS7WdetXFNzaO6JryRgT6vNKoz8c1316caz5D1mXi-MlnqfbIwMNLywAiftNISNAivNiyxiPRyqBzFlfpmRv8XPyPfVX8ugiTasMWb_mxDV-4RmssOXanV5kVF-wEi4ADkQnKcTpeo6ooCG1QmKXlQGnVSj_iE6KaOD0oZTdQLZhHBs4fnw" width="180" /></a></div><br />I've been absent from blogging for a few months because of a busy work-life (better to be busy than not!), but I've been planning on writing a great deal on <a href="https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/the-spirituality-of-the-english-and-american-deists-joseph-waligore/1142346593" target="_blank">this book</a> by Dr. Joseph Waligore, in part because he closely reads our American Creation blog and our research has influenced the contents of this book.<br /><br />I plan on having a lot more to say on the contents of <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9781666920635/The-Spirituality-of-the-English-and-American-Deists-How-God-Became-Good">this book</a>; but it is a true "game changer" on how to understand the definition of "deism." Now, the current scholarly consensus defines deism as belief in 1. a non-intervening cold, distant watchmaker God who; 2. issues no special revelation, performs no miracles, doesn't communicate to man and consequently to whom praying would be a waste of time.<br /><br />Waligore demonstrates that this definition is mistaken. Now, it's possible that because of how terms are understood in academic and other discourse, that we are "stuck" with this definition for now. However, keep in mind then that many of the historical figures whom we associate with "deism" from Washington, Franklin and Jefferson to Robespierre and many other figures of the French Revolution were not "deists." We need either a different term, or we need to qualify the term "deist" with an adjective like "warm deist," "providential deist," "Christian-Deist" etc., etc. Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-23197713512663011922023-07-14T13:57:00.000-06:002023-07-14T13:57:00.285-06:00AI Art -- American Revolutionary Period<p>Not sure how many of you have jumped on the AI art trend, but I thought I'd try something a little light today. Something not too intellectually heavy and (hopefully) not too controversial -- though I know many people detest artificial intelligence (AI) and all it stands for. But I'm not selling these. Just doing these for fun. So, here are some of my recent AI art creations inspired by the American Revolutionary time period. </p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVdw4PQLhic3djdXVncf8TErSGKqhbPHcArdlEEyeQy-PXDsCOtT8LeOiMx9rrBugthpprehz3UEDS712Fpob-sk-ZMYL3VvynFXf0Z9rqfYeGGBTj7nsaSdA-R7PLdBm5CMsW5AbyZfYu-KFYz52d1FNOG1mTnHu-BJS0j0Y4AT-R0Dqy1auP-O1sxSkP/s1024/briantubbs_a_close-up_of_a_determined_and_rugged_black_soldier__cef58a77-43df-4af5-839b-afcdbb0a65ad.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="1024" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVdw4PQLhic3djdXVncf8TErSGKqhbPHcArdlEEyeQy-PXDsCOtT8LeOiMx9rrBugthpprehz3UEDS712Fpob-sk-ZMYL3VvynFXf0Z9rqfYeGGBTj7nsaSdA-R7PLdBm5CMsW5AbyZfYu-KFYz52d1FNOG1mTnHu-BJS0j0Y4AT-R0Dqy1auP-O1sxSkP/w640-h640/briantubbs_a_close-up_of_a_determined_and_rugged_black_soldier__cef58a77-43df-4af5-839b-afcdbb0a65ad.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A Black soldier in the Continental Army<br /><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibcFjr93aEHFV6btXCkPbMKx1bI-6qc1Pe1D5-cl9rvjq4tGkRPSo6seesteVqncRRY7VDQOvCLvc28M3-Be0it_6QwYbtpRe5Q4OXE2YBrDQU_jlAC5oIeQn986yBWmkSI12QVxnJgAAQxf209xfWyA5H4wdWhPs3krcBIcqLCRIeiGDdGn_IuF5LL4BJ/s593/briantubbs_a_colonial_woman_bakes_a_cake_during_the_American_Re_12b303b2-a549-47f0-aacc-6f0400130bc6.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="593" data-original-width="593" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibcFjr93aEHFV6btXCkPbMKx1bI-6qc1Pe1D5-cl9rvjq4tGkRPSo6seesteVqncRRY7VDQOvCLvc28M3-Be0it_6QwYbtpRe5Q4OXE2YBrDQU_jlAC5oIeQn986yBWmkSI12QVxnJgAAQxf209xfWyA5H4wdWhPs3krcBIcqLCRIeiGDdGn_IuF5LL4BJ/w640-h640/briantubbs_a_colonial_woman_bakes_a_cake_during_the_American_Re_12b303b2-a549-47f0-aacc-6f0400130bc6.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A Colonial American woman baking in her home</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOYVqMRGOu-iCgVqBIvG_0bl8SA6Qyos1VvclhGpKdBaotdw5SRD44JwSs-T_LffKUMAJ40HveS800_TYMnc_lyIlTMI_8lcLFuHBqqZM-jHbJPJP9TQ72b_KoISm1kL6UC6oHqmJrox4XPtujQv97Xl7CwDHelmtlUgsd6VK1CJ9HU_X6FWtBI3vCef1y/s1024/briantubbs_a_colonial_era_white_man_working_in_a_blacksmith_sho_d2f21c50-36dc-40dd-adf7-bd3cd48bcdc2%20(1).png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="1024" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOYVqMRGOu-iCgVqBIvG_0bl8SA6Qyos1VvclhGpKdBaotdw5SRD44JwSs-T_LffKUMAJ40HveS800_TYMnc_lyIlTMI_8lcLFuHBqqZM-jHbJPJP9TQ72b_KoISm1kL6UC6oHqmJrox4XPtujQv97Xl7CwDHelmtlUgsd6VK1CJ9HU_X6FWtBI3vCef1y/w640-h640/briantubbs_a_colonial_era_white_man_working_in_a_blacksmith_sho_d2f21c50-36dc-40dd-adf7-bd3cd48bcdc2%20(1).png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A blacksmith works in his shop</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFkMm6C90v1XDgAVwdvTwbIuciuP-Zyh7Z5zlT0c6tyMa551i2I7wT6xNOzAubhmUZfIYIqN3SVyaysr8bFvpap8s3J9n_Z188_Yp0amS008k8P2K2gRljwopNBBp8wJFOpI-DZoiFw78g4vA8927gcAau_ctFLAvSHBPb3HOPPIs86tRmJFx1WZd_1yCI/s593/briantubbs_childrens_illustration_of_a_drummer_boy_in_the_Ameri_70127876-242d-4b76-9dfc-bd590e3403d3.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="593" data-original-width="593" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFkMm6C90v1XDgAVwdvTwbIuciuP-Zyh7Z5zlT0c6tyMa551i2I7wT6xNOzAubhmUZfIYIqN3SVyaysr8bFvpap8s3J9n_Z188_Yp0amS008k8P2K2gRljwopNBBp8wJFOpI-DZoiFw78g4vA8927gcAau_ctFLAvSHBPb3HOPPIs86tRmJFx1WZd_1yCI/w640-h640/briantubbs_childrens_illustration_of_a_drummer_boy_in_the_Ameri_70127876-242d-4b76-9dfc-bd590e3403d3.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A British drummer boy</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p>I know I haven't posted much in a while. Been busy. But if you like these, I may post some more. </p><p>And, eventually, I may try to post some articles again. :-)</p><p>Blessings to all!</p>Brian Tubbshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15412421076480479001noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-44585435174747919552023-05-12T18:05:00.004-06:002023-05-12T18:05:38.428-06:00"Levelling" the Playing Field: John Lilburne, the Levellers and Combining the Protestant/Enlightenment Models of Resistance Theory<p> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Resistance Theory, or the study of
how different groups and individuals came to justify their opposition to
authority, has emerged as a pivotal battlefield for modern historians.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In recent years, this battle seems to be
waged by scholars who advocate for either the Protestant Reformers or
Enlightenment thinkers as being the principal agents whose teachings and
efforts proved most significant in fostering the ideas behind Resistance Theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And while efforts have been made to bridge
both the ideas of Protestant Reformers and Enlightenment thinkers into a
cohesive narrative that explains the origins of Resistance Theory, the gap
between these supposed rivals remains.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The 17th century witnessed
significant political and social upheaval in England, particularly with regards
to how nobility and citizenry came to define their relationship to one another.
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In many respects, this era was the defining
period for how Western Civilization would negotiate the bond between rulers and
subordinates and the duties of each.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It
is during this era that a group known as the Levellers emerged as a powerful
and potent voice that came to embody many of the key elements of Resistance
Theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Led by their fearless advocate
John Lilburne, the Levellers developed a unique justification for opposition to
authority that came to personify the very best of both the Protestant Reformers
and the Enlightenment thinkers, making them the quintessential bridge that ostensibly
links these apparent rivals.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The Protestant Arguments for Resistance Theory<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">To better understand how the
Levellers serve as a bridge linking both the Protestant and Enlightenment contributions
to Resistance Theory, a general review of some of the key arguments behind both
the Protestant and the Enlightenment ethic is warranted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the Protestant camp, scholars have, in recent
years, insisted that many if not most of the ideas deemed special to
Enlightenment thinkers were present in the Reformed traditions of Protestant
Reformers.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In essence, it was the fires of
Protestantism, sparked and fueled by the difficulties of the Reformation, in
which early reformers found the justifications to oppose their authority
figures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">This is no small claim, since
Christianity itself had served as the justification behind Divine Right
Kingship throughout Europe. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One example
of this subjugation was the way in which Paul’s admonition to the Romans was
afforded significant (or even histrionic) significance in what the Medieval
world would call the Divine Right of Kings. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;"><i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Let every soul be subject unto the
higher powers. For there is no power but of God:
the powers that be are ordained of God.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whosoever therefore resisteth the power,
resisteth the ordinance of God: and they that resist shall receive to
themselves damnation...For he is the minister of God to thee for
good. But if thou do that which is evil, be afraid; for he beareth not the
sword in vain: for he is the minister of God, a revenger to execute wrath
upon him that doeth evil.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Wherefore ye must needs be subject, not only for wrath, but
also for conscience sake</span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%;">.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">One would be hard pressed to find a set of verses in all
Christian scripture that have caused more anxiety and debate in the study of
Resistance Theory than these few words from Paul.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For centuries they came to dominate much of
the public discourse on the question of how a “good Christian” should submit to
authority, and when “righteous rebellion” to God’s chosen leaders was
warranted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Divine Right Kingship was not
some passing fad that simply faded with time but rather was the bedrock for
organizing the whole of society.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As one
historian of Divine Right Kingship put it:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1.0in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">That the ideal State is the kingdom of God upon earth,
and that no other can be an object of veneration to a Christian, is the notion
that lies at the heart of Medieval Europe…the Pope, as most plainly the
depositary of Divine Authority, afterwards the Emperor, as called to his office
by God’s election and appointment, claims to be the true and supreme head of
the Christian commonwealth, by Divine Right of the Lord of the world.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[3]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">God’s division of responsibility between Pope and King meant
that matters both spiritual and temporal had been given their divine
sanction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the common Christian, this
meant that both religious and governmental superiors exercised substantial
influence on a laity now made fully dependent upon their will and pleasure.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Scholars who
advocate for the Reformation Era as the nucleus of Resistance Theory ideology
are quick to point to figures like John Wycliffe, who paved the way for later
Protestant Reformers by attacking these foundations of Divine Right
Kingship.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wycliffe is significant because
he not only opposed the rulers of his time, but he also led a movement of
followers who took up his cause and carried it to the masses. Known as
the Lollards by their detractors, these followers of Wycliffe breathed new
oxygen into the fire that Wycliffe had ignited through his extremely incendiary
rhetoric. Wycliffe was never one to shy away from taking shots at the
ecclesiastical authorities of his time, particularly bishops, abbots and monks,
whom he called “heretics” who “sacrifice unto idols…even more than the
sacrifices of the priests of Baal” and whose form of worship “give their
attention to ritual, flattery detraction and falsehood, rejecting scripture and
neglecting to rebuke sin.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[5]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a> And
to his secular leaders, Wycliffe was equally harsh, calling the reign of King Richard,
II not sanctioned by divinity.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[6]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">These teachings, spread throughout
Europe by both Wycliffe and his Lollards, posed a clear threat to both the authority
of the Church and the king, and served as the inspiration for later Protestant
Reformers who would take up Wycliffe’s mantle and advocate for opposition to
authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, the fact that England already
seemed to embrace a spirit of reform before the Reformation even began
indicates that the fires of popular dissent were already spreading before
Luther or Calvin ever came on the scene.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As one historian has noted, “The ingredients of early Protestantism
proved already numerous in the reign of Henry VIII, yet among them Lutheranism
may scarcely be regarded as predominant, and Calvinism as yet remained almost
negligible…we may now confidently ascribe a role of some importance on the
popular level to the still vital force of Lollardy.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[7]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">When Luther, Calvin, etc. finally
come on the scene, the initial flame of resistance to authority had already
been stoked.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Reformers themselves
took the torch of Resistance Theory and added their ow unique perspectives to
the narrative.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For men like Luther and
Calvin, the issue of opposition to authority was as divisive (if not more so) as
issues like sacraments, baptism and Biblical infallibility.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, Martin Luther’s understanding of
the Apostle Paul’s admonition to “be subject unto the higher powers” that are
“ordained of God” (as found in Romans, 13) were not subject to man’s personal
interpretation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, there
were limits to how far one could oppose his Sovereign.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Luther stated in his commentary on the Epistle
to the Romans, Romans, chapter 13 was “truly a most important piece of the New
Testament.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[8]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And like the rest of his emerging theology,
Luther encapsulated his understanding of Romans, 13 into the framework of his
emerging theology on grace vs. works.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As
Luther stated:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1.0in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">You must not understand the word law here in human
fashion, i.e., a regulation about what sort of works must be done or must not
be done. That's the way it is with human laws: you satisfy the demands of the
law with works, whether your heart is in it or not. God judges what is in the depths
of the heart. Therefore his law also makes demands on the depths of the heart
and doesn't let the heart rest content in works; rather it punishes as
hypocrisy and lies all works done apart from the depths of the heart.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[9]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Luther added clarity to his position on Romans, 13 when he
stated unequivocally that leaders were to be obeyed, even when they are
evil.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As he stated, “subjects are to be
obedient and are even to suffer wrong from their tyrants.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Luther defended this position when he wrote:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1.0in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">There are some who abuse this office, and strike and
kill people needlessly simply because they want to. But that is the fault of
the persons, not of the office, for where is there an office or a work or
anything else so good that self-willed, wicked people do not abuse it?...Ultimately,
they cannot escape God’s judgment and sword. In the end God’s justice finds
them and strikes, as happened to the peasants in the revolt.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[10]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In Luther’s mind the words of Paul as found in Romans were
crystal clear.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A Christian needed to
take extreme care, considering the words of scripture before choosing to rebel against
their God-chosen authorities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And as
Paul pointed out, support for one’s authority was God’s will, even when those
leaders were in the wrong.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These concepts
were not lost on Martin Luther, as evidenced by his words and teachings which
endorse caution and submission as opposed to outright opposition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Martin Luther was not the lone voice of
the Protestant Reformation who saw limitations to one’s opposition of
authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Years later, John Calvin
would also weigh in on the matter of how far was too far when it came to open
opposition to one’s divinely sanctioned leader.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In his own commentary on the Book of Romans, Calvin spoke openly about
one’s Christian duty to oppose authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He wrote:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1.0in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">[Paul] calls them the <i>higher powers, </i><a name="fr_399"></a>not the supreme, who possess the chief authority, but
such as excel other men…And it seems indeed to me, that the Apostle
intended by this word to take away the frivolous curiosity of men, who are
won’t often to inquire by what right they who rule have obtained their authority;
but it ought to be enough for us, that they <i>do rule; </i>for they
have not ascended by their own power into this high station, but have been
placed there by the Lord’s hand. And by mentioning <i>every
soul, </i>he removes every exception, lest any one should claim an
immunity from the common duty of obedience.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[11]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">And while Calvin acknowledged the
Christian duty to oppose unrighteous authority, he too expressed his opinion regarding
the limitations expressly mentioned in Paul’s message to the Romans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In his <i>Institutes on the Christian Religion,
</i>Calvin writes, "We are to be subject not only to the authority of
those princes who do their duty towards us as they should, and uprightly, but
to all of them, however they came by their office, even if the very last thing
they do is act like [true] princes."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Calvin also noted, “[w]e must honour [even] the worst tyrant in the
office in which the Lord has seen fit to set him"<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[12]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, John Calvin shared Martin
Luther’s hesitation regarding opposition for authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were clear limitations that had to be
respected, even if a tyrant was ruling in the most unrighteous of ways.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">It may seem somewhat contradictory in
nature to read Reformers like Calvin and Luther both sanctioning and opposing
the concept of opposition to authority, but this contradiction illustrates the
complexity that is found in Resistance Theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Protestant Reformers knew and understood that problems existed in the
church hierarchy, and that said problems could not be ignored.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But at the same time, they also felt that
absolute opposition constituted a potential breakdown of the social hierarchy, not
to mention a blatant disregard for the admonitions of God found in holy
scripture.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As one historian who
advocates for the Protestant origins of Resistance Theory has reminded us, the Reformers
never meant to overthrow the established order but rather to help cleanse the
faith by “returning the church to where it should be.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[13]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A complete coup d’etat was never something
they would have sanctioned.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fellow
Reformer Philip Melanchthon supports this understanding of resistance to authority
when he wrote:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>But here the question is asked: If
violation of civil laws is a mortal sin, what <span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>should be thought about the
violation of ecclesiastical laws which are laid down <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>by bishops?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>I answer: First of all, one must not obey traditions while militate <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>against a
commandment of God, whether they originated with magistrates that <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>bear the sword or
with bishops, because one must obey God rather than men.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[14]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The Era of the Protestant Reformation
was witness to the proliferation of a vast number of different Protestant
denominations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This proliferation of
Protestant denominations was at least in part inspired by the idea that an individual
could read and interpret scripture for himself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Prominent theologians such as Martin Luther, John Calvin and others argued
that conscience, guided by one's personal interpretation of scripture, should
take precedence over the dictates of religious and political authorities. This
elevation of conscience as a moral compass was the foundational concept of how
the Protestant Reformation furthered the cause of Resistance Theory.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[15]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">One of the primary issues many
historians have with giving Protestant Reformers credit for helping to give birth
to resistance theory has to do with the doctrines found in Protestantism
itself.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[16]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, if humanity is in a state of
total depravity and God has chosen, of his own free will, his select few to be
saved by unconditional election, how does resistance to authority become a
thing in the first place? <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">What these skeptics fail to recognize is the fact that the
Protestant Reformation was not a movement conceived in a bubble and limited to
a small geographic location, in a specific period of history.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, the Protestant Reformation was a
living, growing movement that spread far and wide, and was never officially
concluded at any specific moment of the past.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Reformation continued to move forward, influencing various nations,
cultures, and historic periods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently,
we must then be forced to look at the evolution of resistance theory in the
same light as we see a living, evolving and changing Reformation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Protestant Reformation did not live and
die simply with Luther or Calvin, and the same is true of resistance
theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The Enlightenment Arguments for Resistance Theory<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">This apparent contradiction or limitation
on the justification for opposition to authority is where skeptics of the
Protestant Reformation model for the origins of Resistance Theory tend to focus
their criticism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Protestant Reformers
went only so far in their arguments directed to inspire opposition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is that limitation that makes some
historians lean toward the thinkers of the Enlightenment as being the actual
gatekeepers for Resistance Theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As these historians will regularly point out,
The Protestant Reformation advanced the cause of Resistance Theory only as far
as it benefited their respective Protestant doctrine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Beyond that, there was no need to champion
the cause of open defiance to the political authorities.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>For scholars
of the Enlightenment persuasion being the principal motivation behind
Resistance Theory, an appeal to the words of men like John Locke, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, Thomas Hobbes and others constitute the bulwark of Resistance Theory
doctrine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Beginning with Locke, these scholars
are quick to demonstrate how the empirical approach of Enlightenment thinkers breathed
new life into old institutions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Locke’s
views on religion have been thoroughly dissected by scholars of all stripes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And while many historians are quick to point
out that Locke was anything but orthodox in his religious persuasions, one
would be extremely hard pressed to say that Locke cared nothing for religion at
all.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As one biographer of John Locke put
is, “Locke was concerned not only with religious toleration by the state, but
also with mutual toleration of different sects, churches and their members.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[18]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">And with this toleration, John Locke
was free to explore avenues of thought that were not necessarily available to
his predecessors like Calvin or Luther.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For example, Locke’s interpretation of Romans, 13 presents several
unique points that not only build off of earlier opinions of key Protestant Reformers,
but also present a clear path for resistance theory to flourish:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1.0in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">That these rules are given to Christians, that were
members of a heathen commonwealth, to show them that, by being made Christians
and subjects of Christ’s kingdom, they were not, by the freedom of the gospel,
exempt from any ties of duty, or subjection, which by the laws of their
country, they were in, and ought to observe, to the government and magistrates
of it…But, on the other side, these rules did not tie them up, any more than
any of their fellow-citizens, who were not Christians, from any of those due
rights, which, by the law of nature, or the constitutions of their country,
belonged to them. Whatsoever any other of their fellow-subjects, being in a
like station with them, might do without sinning, that they were not abridged
of, but might do still, being Christians…That St. Paul, in this direction to
the romans, does not so much describe the magistrates that then were in Rome,
as tells whence they, and all magistrates, everywhere, have their authority;
and for what end they have it, and should use it. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And this he does, as becomes his prudence, to
avoid bringing any imputation on Christians, from heathen magistrates,
especially those insolent and vicious ones of Rome, who could not brook any
thing to be told them as their duty, and so might be apt to interpret such
plain truths, laid down in a dogmatical way, into sauciness, sedition, or
treason, a scandal cautiously to be kept off from the Christian doctrine!<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[19]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Unlike Luther and Calvin, Locke believed that the “magistrate”
was meant to protect the masses from a tyrant, and absolute allegiance to God’s
Sovereign was not absolute.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words,
Locke understood Paul’s admonition to the Romans to be a loose guide but not an
absolute admonition to always acquiesce to one’s leader.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Locke made this position clear when he wrote, “Our
present King William…in the <b><i>consent of the people, which being the only
one of all lawful governments</i></b>, he has more fully and clearly, than any
prince in Christendom.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[20]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Contrary to the words of Protestant
Reformers,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Locke gives the specific
understanding that submission to one’s leader was contingent upon the rules of
law and the consent of the people, which was absent from the Protestant
arguments for opposition to authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Scholars
advocating for the Enlightenment model for Resistance Theory do not rely on
Locke alone.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other thinkers like Baron de
Montesquieu made mention of how authority was never meant to receive absolute
sanction without limitation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As he wrote
in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Spirit of </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Laws, “The</span> political liberty, of the
subject, is a tranquility of mind arising from the opinion each person has of
[their] safety. In order to have this liberty. It is requisite the government
be so constituted as one [person] need not to be afraid of another.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thomas Hobbs echoes these sentiments in his
legendary work <i>Leviathan </i>when he wrote:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1.0in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Because the major part hath by consenting voices
declared a sovereign, he that dissented must now consent with the rest; that
is, be contented to avow all the actions he shall do, or else justly be
destroyed by the rest. For if he voluntarily entered into the congregation of
them that were assembled, he sufficiently declared thereby his will, and
therefore tacitly covenanted, to stand to what the major part should ordain:
and therefore if he refuse to stand thereto, or make protestation against any
of their decrees, he does contrary to his covenant, and therefore unjustly.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There is no
dispute that Enlightenment teachings had spread a great deal across
Europe.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The dissemination of such ideas
inspired important writings that would contribute to the concept of Resistance Theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the most important of these writings
was the <i>Vindiciae Contra Tyrannos </i>(<i>A Defense of Liberty Against
Tyrants</i>), written at some point in the middle of the sixteenth century, which
was an anonymous treatise that defiantly suggested that the people at large were
never responsible for obeying their king.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Appealing to biblical examples in which opposition to authority was
warranted by God himself, the <i>Vindiciae</i> portrayed the relationship
between king and subordinate as a covenant in which all honor and reverence to
God’s laws was promised by the monarch, who in turn received the adoration and
allegiance of his subjects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Any violation
of this arrangement was a breach of the covenant and merited the wrath of God’s
vengeance.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[23]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Another important document inspired
during this time was that of Scottish Presbyterian minister Samuel Rutherford,
who in the 17<sup>th</sup> century published his landmark work <i>Lex Rex </i>(The
Law is King) which openly and defiantly challenged the concept of Divine Right
Kingship.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Rutherford put it, “The
people have power over the king by reason of his covenant and promise. —
Covenants and promises violated, infer co-action, <i>de jure</i>, by law.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[24]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In the minds of scholars who favor
Enlightenment thinking as being the chief motivator behind Resistance Theory,
it is obvious that the ideas of Locke, Hobbs, Rutherford, etc. are the engines
behind the justification for resistance to authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Protestant Reformers came up short, and
therefore do not deserve the ultimate credit for Resistance Theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is in the Enlightenment that Western
Civilization found its justification for the eventual revolutions and
oppositions to kings that would ultimately spread throughout Europe and the Americas.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%;">John Lilburne, The Levellers, and Uniting the Protestant/Enlightenment
Models<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As already
stated, the concept of Resistance Theory has become a virtual tug-o-war between
scholars advocating for the Protestant Reformers vs. those in favor of
Enlightenment thinkers, each vying for ultimate control of the narrative behind
opposition to authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And while these
debates have yielded much fruit, they have failed to consider how both models
have been adopted in the past.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
legacy of John Lilbure and the Levellers is one that merges the best arguments
of both the Protestant and the Enlightenment traditions, creating a seamless
narrative that gives credence to the whole of Resistance Theory.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">When we consider the legacy of John
Lilburne, the English writer and activist who is often credited with being the
first to argue for “human free born rights,” we must consider what it was that
inspired him in the first place.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lilburne
Biographer Pauline Gregg notes that John Lilburne was a man who “had a sense of
destiny” who had “amalgamated all that had preceded him.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[25]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lilburne’s “sense of destiny” certainly accounts
for his willingness to boldly decry and lambast the leaders of his time, which
gave him tremendous clout during the critical years of the English Civil
War.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As another Lilburne Biographer
states, “Lilburne was a key figure in the religious opposition of Charles I…and
was a significant player in the rift of parliamentary coalition…Lilburne’s
positions, then and now, help mark out our own positions in relation to
political tyranny.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[26]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In his writings and public
declarations, Lilburne employed the ideas of both Protestant Reformers and
Enlightenment thinkers to justify his blatant opposition to authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He constructed his understanding on both the
backs of men like Luther and Calvin, while at the same time throwing punches
with the arms of Locke and Hobbes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
amalgamation of both the Protestant and the Enlightenment ideas eventually gave
birth to a concept of Resistance Theory that embodied the best of both
worlds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">A perfect example of this fusion of
Protestant and Enlightenment arguments can be found in Lilburne’s famous
pamphlet, “To all the Freeborne People of England” in which Lilburne states, “No
power on earth can lawfully force or compel me to believe otherwise than my own
conscience dictates.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[27]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here, Lilburne invokes the Protestant
notion of individual conscience as a justification for opposing authority and
interpreting scripture for oneself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At
the same time, Lilburne appealed to the Enlightenment idea regarding natural
rights and natural law when he stated, “Liberty of conscience, being every
man's natural right…it is not to be judged or cut off by human authority, but
by the Word of God.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[28]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lilburne reiterates this Enlightenment theme
of natural rights in his pamphlet “England’s Birthright Justified when he
writes, “I am born a free-born Englishman, and have as much right to my liberty,
to my just propriety, and to my body and soul as any Lord in England.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[29]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
By appealing to the natural rights of individuals, Lilburne argued that
authority should be limited and accountable to the people it governed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Lilburne’s work inspired his
supporters, known as The Levellers, to take up the cause of opposition to
authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Levellers came to detest
the religious domination of both the Catholic Church and the Church of England,
which is where the root of their opposition to authority began to sink deeply
into the ground.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Levellers
successfully synthesized both Protestant and Enlightenment concepts to
construct a robust justification for opposition to authority. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As one scholar has noted, “By combining the
Protestant emphasis on individual conscience and the Enlightenment focus on
reason and natural rights, [the Levellers] developed a comprehensive framework
for challenging authoritarian rule.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[30]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In essence, this became the Leveller’s hallmark
contribution to Resistance Theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In terms of their ability to merge
both the Protestant and Enlightenment models, the Levellers took from each
model the best that each camp had to offer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>From the Protestant model the Levellers were profoundly influenced by
the idea of covenant theology, which emphasized the contractual nature or
relationship between God and humanity at large.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In essence, the Levellers found in the Protestant concept of covenant
theology and framework in which could be constructed a model for the
relationship between one’s sovereign and the masses at large.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This model would inspire Protestant Reformers
to advance their interpretation of Resistance Theory and would filter all the
way down to the Levellers who not only adopted the idea but made it their
own.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Historian Tim Rees notes, this “dichotomization
of the covenant tradition into unilateral and bilateral approaches is helpful in
the analysis of seventeenth-century English developments.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[31]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A seventeenth century England that the
Levellers were more than just a little bit familiar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In contrast, the preeminent concept
that the Levellers gleaned from Enlightenment teachings is the concept of natural
law and the social contract theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On
the surface, these ideas share much in common with the Protestant idea of covenant
theology, but they differ greatly on the specifics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Enlightenment principles found in the “State
of Nature” as Thomas Hobbes argued, were such that each man would seek after
his own desires unless a “social contract” was established in which man gave up
a portion of his freedom for the greater good.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[32]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the Levellers, this meant that allegiance
to one’s ruler was contingent upon that greater good, and if that were to be violated,
opposition to authority was warranted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The Levellers, inspired by this Enlightenment
concept of the “State of Nature” emphasized reason and rationality as essential
tools for political and social reform. As a result, the Levellers brought
together both the idea of the social contract and covenant theology into one
cohesive doctrine that inspired and drove their understanding of opposition to
authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Levellers sought to
create a society where decisions were made based on logical analysis and
spiritual conviction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This created a healthy
aversion to the idea of blind adherence to traditional or divinely sanctioned
authority. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The Leveller’s unique interpretation
of opposition to authority allowed them to oppose not only King Charles during
the English Civil War, but also the reign of Oliver Cromwell in the aftermath
of the King’s demise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As he stated in
his formal 1748 opposition to Oliver Cromwell and what he believed to be a
tyrannical government, John Lilburne and the Levellers wrote:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: 1.0in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Insomuch as we who upon these grounds have laid out
ourselves every way to the uttermost of our abilities — and all others
throughout the land, soldiers and others who have done the like in defense of
our supreme authority and in opposition to the king — cannot but deem ourselves
in the most dangerous condition of all others: left without all plea of
indemnity for what we have done, as already many have found by the loss of
their lives and liberties either for things done or said against the king, the
law of the land frequently taking place and precedency against and before your
authority, which we esteemed supreme, and against which no law ought to be
pleaded. Nor can we possibly conceive how any that in any ways assisted you can
be exempt from the guilt of murders and robbers by the present laws in force if
you persist to disclaim the supreme authority, though their own consciences do
acquit them as having opposed none but manifest tyrants, oppressors and their
adherents.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><sup><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><sup><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[33]</span></sup><!--[endif]--></span></sup></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Lilburne would eventually go so far as to be imprisoned, on
multiple occasions, for his assertions and beliefs, along with a large number
of his Leveller followers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By promoting
opposition to authority, through the many written pamphlets, letters and other
written forms, John Lilburne and the Levellers advanced the cause of Resistance
Theory throughout England. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The critical
formative years of the English Civil War witnessed tremendous upheaval in ways
that had not previously been experienced by the English populace.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Naturally,
the opposition to authority on the part of the Levellers landed them in trouble
with the powers of their era.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Faced with
numerous trials for heresy, the Levellers were faced with the grim prospect of imprisonment
and even death, but also with the opportunity to spread their message even further
to both the masses and the governing elite alike.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In his work, “Voicing Dissent,” Historian John
Arnold notes that the heresy trials of the Levellers presented “unprecedented
opportunities” for the “dissemination of the Leveller’s teachings.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[34]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In short, these heresy trials presented the
Levellers with the chance to disseminate teachings and materials that had previously
been consigned to pamphlets, petitions, etc. often published under pseudonyms
due to censorship and potential punishment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The Levellers' clever combination of both
Protestant and Enlightenment ideas significantly contributed to the political
and philosophical discourse of their time. The Levellers' synthesis of
Protestant and Enlightenment ideas serves as a testament to the transformative
power of intellectual cross-pollination. Their ability to draw upon diverse
philosophical and religious traditions allowed them to construct a
comprehensive and persuasive theory of resistance. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As such, the Levellers' legacy remains an
important chapter in the history of political thought, highlighting the
potential for fruitful dialogue and synthesis between different intellectual
traditions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By incorporating the
principles of covenant theory, natural laws/rights and the social contract, the
Levellers provided the perfect Rorschach test for Western Civilization to
oppose oppressive leadership.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their work
continues to resonate in modern democratic societies, shaping the concepts of
freedom, equality, democracy and citizen participation in government.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Mark David Hall and Sarah Morgan Smith, “Whose Rebellion? Reformed Resistance
Theory in America, Part I” (George Fox University, Digital Commons Publication,
Department of History, Politics and International Studies, 2017). Pp. 170.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1084&context=hist_fac<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Romans
13:1-2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>The Holy Bible: The King
James Version </i>(World Wide Bible Assoc.: 2019).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk44236260">J.N. Figgis, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Divine Right of Kings</i> (Cambridge, 1914).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></a>Pp. 40.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk44236184">Eamon Duffy, <i>The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional
Religion in England, 1400-1580 </i>(Yale University Press, 2005</a>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pp. 53-55.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk131961537">John Wycliffe, <i>Tracts and Treatises of John de
Wycliffe</i>, <i>Book III. </i>Trans. Rev. Robert Vaughan<i> </i>(London:
Blackburn and Pardon Hatton Garden, 1845). Online Library of
Liberty. <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/wyclife-tracts-and-treatises-of-john-de-wycliffe.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pp. 202-203</a>.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Ibid, 259-260.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk44235659">Dickens, A.G., ed. <i>Lollards and Protestants in the
Diocese of York</i> (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 1982).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pp. 8.
http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.5040/9781472599421.</a><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk58152435">Martin Luther, <i>Commentary on the Epistle to the
Romans</i> (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing, 1954</a>), p. 164.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Ibid, 164-165.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk58152595">Martin Luther to Assa von Kram, <i>Whether Soldiers Can be
Saved </i>(1527).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Trans. W.H.
Carruth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1082&context=ocj<o:p></o:p></a></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk58152649">John Calvin, <i>Commentaries on the Epistles of Paul to the
Romans </i>(1539; reprinted for the Calvin Translation Society, 1849</a>). Online
edition. Pp. 478.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Ibid, 479-480.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk58152939">Diarmaid MacCullough, <i>The Reformation: A History </i>(New
York: Penguin Books, 2005</a>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pp. 132.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Philip Melanchthon, <i>Commentary on Romans</i>, 215-216.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk58918535">John Calvin, <i>Institutes of the Christian Religion</i>
vol. XXI, book III.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Trans. by Ford Lewis
Battles (Philadelphia, The Westminster Press, 1984).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pp. 761.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>https://calvin/edu/centers-institutes/meeter-center/files/fellowships-scholarships/Calvin%20On%20Civil%20Government.pdf.</a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Calvin argued, “authority of Scripture is
founded on its being spoken by God.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
confirmed by the conscience of the godly, and the consent of all men of the candor.”<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk58152988">Gregg Frazer, <i>The Religious Beliefs of America’s
Founders: Reason, Revelation and Revolution</i> (Lawrence, Kansas: University
of Kansas Press, 2012</a>). Pp. 66-68.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Though Dr. Frazer’s book does not focus on the Protestant Reformation
directly, his research into Calvinism and its influence on resistance theory is
applicable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dr. Frazer maintains that
the concept of resistance theory was born in spite of the Protestant Reformation,
by those influenced by Enlightenment principles. In this book, Dr. Frazer coins
the phrase “Theistic Rationalists” and applies it to those whom he believes
eventually gave birth to resistance theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn17" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Jacob
De Roover “John Locke, Christian Liberty, and the Predicament of Liberal
Toleration.” <i>Political Theory</i>, vol. 36, no. 4 (August 2008):
523–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0090591708317969.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Roover highlights the ways in which Protestant
Christianity tolerated and in many respects encouraged the continuation of
hostile political authority, which would remain intact until the rise of
Enlightenment arguments to the contrary.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn18" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk59038472">Roger Woolhouse, <i>Locke: A Biography </i>(New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2008)</a>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Pp. 234.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn19" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk59040529"></a><a name="_Hlk131952950"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk59040529;">John
Locke, <i>The Works of John Locke: Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St.
Paul to the Galatians, I and II Corinthians, Romans, and Ephesians.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i>Vol. 7.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>London: C. Baldwin Printing, 1824.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Works_of_John_Locke_Paraphrase_and_<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>n/1wRaAAAAIAAJ?jl =en&gbpv=1</span></a><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn20" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[20]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
John Locke, <i>Two Treatises of Government.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></i>Harvard University Press, 1824.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>https://www.google.com/books/edition/Two_Treatises_of_Government/K1UBAAAAYA<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>AJ?hl=en&gbpv=1<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn21" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Baron de Montesquieu, <i>The Spirit of Laws</i>, <i>Complete Works, vol. 1</i> Trans.
T. Evans (London: 1748). Pp. 344.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/montesquieu-complete-works-vol-1-the-spirit-of-laws<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn22" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk134787302">Thomas Hobbes, <i>Leviathan: Revised Edition. </i>Ed.
Brian Battiste (New York: Broadview Editions, 2011). Pp. 316.<o:p></o:p></a></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn23" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[23]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk134799250"></a><a name="_Hlk26641391"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk134799250;"><i>Vindiciae
Contra Tyrannos, </i>(Basel, France: 1579</span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk134799250;">).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn24" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[24]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk26641440"></a><a name="_Hlk26696941"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk26641440;">Samuel
Rutherford, <i>Lex Rex; or the Law and the Prince </i>(1644).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk26641440;">Online
edition</span>.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn25" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[25]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Gregg,
Pauline, <i>Free Born John: A Biography of John Lilburne</i> (University of
Arizona Press, 2001). Pp. 16.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn26" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[26]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Michael Braddick: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Common Freedom of
the People: <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">John Lilburne & the
English Reformation </span></i>(New York: Oxford University Press, 2018). Pp.
282.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn27" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[27]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk134790182">John Lilburne, "To all the Freeborne People of
England” 1649.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Included in Stuart Prall,
<i>The Puritan Revolution: A Documentary History </i>(Netherlands: Routledge
& Kegan Paul, 2020). Pp. 53-67.<o:p></o:p></a></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn28" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[28]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk134790331">John Lilburne, William Walwyn, Thomas Prince, and Richard
Overton. “An Agreement of the Free People of England. 1 May 1649.” In <i>The
English Levellers</i>, edited by Andrew Sharp, 168–78. Cambridge Texts in the
History of Political Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
doi:10.1017/CBO9781139171250.016.</a><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn29" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[29]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk134790786">John Lilburne, “England's Birthright Justified” (1645).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From <i>Tracts on Liberty by the Levellers
and their Critics Vol. 2 (1644-1645)</i>. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2015. https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/lilburne-tracts-on-liberty-by-the-levellers-and-their-critics-vol-2-1644-1645</a><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn30" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[30]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Hammersley,
Rachel. <i>The English Republican Tradition and Eighteenth-Century France
Between the Ancients and the Moderns</i>. Manchester: Manchester University
Press, 2010. Pp. 13.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn31" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[31]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Rees,
Tim. "The Levellers and Covenant Theology." <i>The Seventeenth
Century</i> 24, no. 2 (2009): Pp. 225.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>https://digitalcommons.calvin.edu/cts_dissertations/32/<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn32" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[32]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Thomas Hobbes, <i>Leviathan, </i>610.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn33" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[33]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <a name="_Hlk59128370">Keith Lindley, <i>The English Civil War and Revolution: A
Sourcebook </i>(New York: Routledge Printing, 1998).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pp. 162.</a><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn34" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Reformation/Levellers%20Resistance%20Theory%20Final.docx#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri",sans-serif; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[34]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> John
Arnold, “Voicing Dissent: Heresy Trials in Later Medieval England.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i>Past & Present</i>, Volume 245, Issue
1, November 2019.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>https://doi-org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1093/pastj/gtz025.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><o:p> </o:p></p>
</div>
</div>Brad Harthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17669677047039491864noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-15804311216905246912023-05-12T13:56:00.002-06:002023-05-12T13:56:58.392-06:00The Pure in Heart: Mormon Zionism and the Market Revolution<p> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">The <i>Seneca
Chief</i>, a newly constructed steamboat, proudly sailed at the vanguard of a
large procession of steamers and cargo ships that had recently arrived in New
York’s harbor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their arrival marked the
completion of a two-week journey, which had commenced roughly four hundred
miles to the west in Buffalo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Standing
at the ship’s bow was New York Governor Dewitt Clinton, surrounded by foreign
dignitaries, congressmen and city officials.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Scores of anxious onlookers gathered along the frozen November coastline,
hoping to catch a glimpse of the festivities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>What had begun roughly eight years previously as nothing more than a
dream was about to come to fruition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>With all eyes fixed on the <i>Seneca Chief</i>, Governor Clinton
ceremoniously emptied several bottles of water taken from Lake Erie into the
Atlantic Ocean, commemorating the “wedding of the waters.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The construction of New York’s Erie Canal, an
enormous feat of engineering for nineteenth-century America, was officially
complete.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Though
truly a remarkable accomplishment, the construction of the Erie Canal turned
out to be much more than a monument to America’s engineering genius.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It became a symbol of the changing economic
standards of early nineteenth-century America, or what historian Charles
Sellers has dubbed the Market Revolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The ease with which goods and services could be transported through the
Erie Canal catapulted New York to the avant-garde of capitalist economics and
caused a dramatic upheaval in the traditional fiscal practices of its citizenry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The communal subsistence culture, which had
tied family members and neighbors together in a tight web of economic and
social interdependence, was replaced by the profit-driven mentality of the
Market Revolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By “establishing
capitalist hegemony over economy, politics and culture,” the Market Revolution
introduced American society to the tempting world of profit-seeking and worldly
wealth.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
attractive as the quest for monetary wealth was for the common American, a
rising number of citizens rose in opposition to the Market Revolution’s
dramatic upheaval of traditional practices, claiming that its influence was a
detriment to society.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One young man in
particular, who was destined to become the founder of one of America’s fastest
growing religions, stood defiant against the Market Revolution’s doctrine of
economic individualism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While in his
youth, Joseph Smith became a fateful witness not only to his family’s financial
woes, but also to the economic plight of the average citizen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While living in New York, Smith also observed
first-hand the dramatic surge in religious revivalism that sought to oppose the
presumed evils of the Market Revolution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As the founder of the Mormon faith, Joseph Smith, like so many other
religious leaders of his time, took an antagonistic stance against the
encroaching forces of capitalism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In an
effort to safeguard his followers from the fires of capitalist corruption,
Joseph Smith endeavored to create a religious Utopia, or as he called it,
Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though originally conceived in the
economic quandary of his childhood family and his alleged communion with the
supernatural, Joseph Smith’s concept of Zion was to be further molded from its
original role as a physical safe haven from the evil influences of the Market Revolution,
into an eternal object of heavenly aspiration for his followers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">The
roots of Mormon Zionism reach far beyond the traditional scope of Mormon
historiography.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For too long the Mormon
understanding of Zion has been ascribed exclusively to the divine admonitions
that Joseph Smith received, commanding him to “gather [God’s] elect from the
four quarters of the earth.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While these admonitions are paramount to the
development of Mormon Zionism, they also omit key events of supreme
significance. Though Joseph Smith was undoubtedly influenced by his paranormal
encounters with deity, he was also unmistakably shaped by events that would
define his childhood, and, in turn, shape his perspective of the world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<h1 style="margin-left: .25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Tahoma",sans-serif; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">I. Family Woes<o:p></o:p></span></b></h1>
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">The
early life experiences of Joseph Smith’s ancestors are critical components in
helping to shape the Mormon prophet’s Zionistic ideology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On both his father and mother’s side, Smith’s
ancestors dwelled for several generations in the New England area as
farmers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though never blessed with great
wealth, the majority of Smith’s ancestors were able to eke out a comfortable
existence for their respective families.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Smith’s parents, Joseph, Sr. and Lucy Mack, began their marriage on
relatively good financial terms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Just
prior to their union, Joseph, Sr. received a small farm in Tunbridge, Vermont,
from his father, Asael, while Lucy was given a generous wedding gift of $1,000
from her brother and his business partner.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After roughly six years of “tilling the earth
for our livelihood,” Joseph, Sr. and Lucy decided to rent out their farm and
move their family (now augmented by the births of two boys: Alvin and Hyrum) to
nearby Randolph, where Joseph, Sr. hoped to profit by opening a “mercantile
establishment.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: .5in;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>By relocating his family to Randolph
and renting out his farm back home, Joseph, Sr. and Lucy Smith made the
conscious decision to disregard their family’s traditional farming lifestyle,
and to seek the riches of market capitalism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Such an endeavor was not atypical of their time, however.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the Market Revolution’s influence spread
across the American landscape, its ringing appeal began to resonate with many
who wanted more than a mere subsistence lifestyle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Historian Gordon Wood alludes to this fact
when he writes, “The struggles of individuals to rise from humble origins and
achieve respectability and wealth became in time part of America’s folklore.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Joseph, Sr. and Lucy’s attempt to open a
mercantile shop was clearly an endeavor motivated by their desire to achieve something
more in life than mere farming, and Randolph, Vermont was the perfect testing
ground for such an enterprise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By all
appearances Randolph seemed to be the typical early nineteenth-century city on
the rise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The region boasted nearly
20,000 acres of the best farmland in all of New England, along with the
additional economic stimulation of a waterway that gave Randolph easy access to
lower Connecticut.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Goods and services to
and from Boston were regularly shipped across this waterway, giving the citizens
of Randolph easy access to a large market.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">After
filling his new store with goods purchased on a line of credit from Boston,
Joseph Sr. was able to sell off his store’s entire inventory in a relatively
short period of time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Those who
purchased Joseph, Sr.’s goods did so not with cash, but with the promise that
he would receive a portion of their year-end harvest.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As strange as such an arrangement might seem,
Joseph, Sr. was actually following a well-established commercial practice
between buyer and seller.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the turn of
the century, lines of credit were still seen as the primary means of exchange.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By all appearances, it looked as though
Joseph, Sr.’s initial experience with market economics was on track to making
him a rich man.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">Unfortunately
for the Smith family, Joseph, Sr.’s luck was about to run out.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead of waiting for his payment from the
sale of his store goods to come in, Joseph, Sr. immediately jumped at the next
big market opportunity to come his way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Upon hearing of a major plague in China, Joseph, Sr. decided to invest
in a large quantity of ginseng root, which was selling at an exorbitant price
as the only remedy for the Chinese people.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>After purchasing a large quantity of ginseng root on credit, Joseph, Sr.
made his way to New York City to secure a means of transporting the goods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shortly thereafter, Joseph, Sr. joined in a
written agreement with a Mr. Stevens, who promised to sell the goods and return
with Smith’s profits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately for
Joseph, Sr., his business partner kept the profits for himself and fled to
Canada.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoHeader" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: .5in;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The financial impact of Joseph,
Sr.’s financial blunder was catastrophic for the Smith family.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not only were they unable to pay for the
ginseng root, but they also had no means of paying off the debts incurred from
the goods purchased on credit from Boston.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As a result, Joseph, Sr. was forced to sell his farm for $800, while
Lucy gave up her $1,000 wedding gift to settle their debts.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With one financial mistake, Joseph, Sr. had
reduced his family’s status from that of successful landowners to tenant
farmers and wage earners.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To make
matters worse, Joseph, Sr. now had no land to pass to his posterity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By nineteenth-century standards, Joseph, Sr.
had become an economic failure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">It was under these
tumultuous economic circumstances that Joseph Smith, Jr. entered the
world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In consequence of his father’s
economic follies, Joseph Smith (along with his siblings) was to face a
turbulent life of poverty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As one Joseph
Smith biographer put it, “The child was born into an insecurity that in a
lifetime of thirty-eight years he was never to escape.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It would be during these early and
impressionable years that Joseph Smith would develop his lifelong distrust of
capitalist economics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The experiences of
his childhood and early adulthood were the catalysts of change, which caused
Joseph Smith to equate communal economics with God’s holy institutions, and
market economics with the devil’s greedy objectives.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">As a young boy,
Joseph Smith witnessed his parent’s plight first-hand.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead of enjoying the fruits of an
independent farming lifestyle, Joseph Smith’s parents were forced to move
closer to relatives, where they became dependent upon the charity of family.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During this time, virtually every member of the
Smith family was required to work for the welfare of the whole.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In his personal history Joseph Smith writes,
“As my father’s worldly circumstances were very limited, we were under the
necessity of laboring with our hands, hiring by days works and otherwise as we
could get opportunity.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though never openly critical of his father,
one gets the sense that Joseph Smith, Jr. had a clear understanding of the fact
that his family’s woes were the direct result of his father’s failed economic
endeavors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">The road back to
prosperity was a difficult one for the Smith family.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead of gaining economic ground, the
communal efforts of the Smiths seemed only to keep things afloat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As mother Lucy Smith noted, “We were
compelled to strain every energy to provide for our present necessities,
instead of making arrangements for the future, as we had previously
contemplated.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Family sicknesses, failed crops and mounting
debts kept the family fortunes from ever augmenting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With the additional hardships brought on by
the War of 1812, the Smith family found themselves yet again in economic
turmoil.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the hopes that their situation might make a
turn for the better, Joseph, Sr. decided to uproot the family from New England
(where ancestral ties had remained strong for several generations) and head
west.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Joseph, Sr.’s original plan had
the Smith family moving to Ohio where land was still relatively cheap.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As time grew closer to the impending move,
however, Joseph, Sr. had a change of heart, deciding instead to head for
Palmyra, New York.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is hard to say for certain what motivated
Joseph, Sr.’s sudden change in plans, but it would not be a stretch to suggest
the possibility that he was yet again excited by the prospects of western New
York’s emerging market economy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As
rumors and proposals continued to circulate regarding the impending
construction of the Erie Canal, land speculation throughout western New York
began to grow.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Land that had cost merely
five to seven shillings an acre in 1790 was now selling for roughly four
dollars an acre in 1800, and then rose to a staggering six dollars by 1817.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Joseph, Sr.’s sudden change of plans was to
yet again land the Smith Family directly into the oncoming fire of capitalistic
zeal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">After their
arrival in Palmyra, New York, Lucy Smith recalled the desperate plight her
family faced in what was then an unfamiliar land.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gathering together in a collective counsel of
sorts, the Smiths once again united in a joint economic venture to secure the
family’s future.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Upon our arrival we
counselled together relative to the course which was best for us to adopt in
our destitute circumstances, and we came to the conclusion to unite our
energies in endeavoring to obtain a piece of land.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For several months every member of the Smith
family worked as hired help in the community, saving as much money as possible
to purchase a plot of land.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After
accumulating the needed income, Joseph, Sr. decided to purchase a hundred acres
of unimproved land on the outskirts of Palmyra.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The agreement called for the Smith family to have the farm paid off in
full within two years time.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After years of financial tragedy, the Smith
family was finally able to secure that which had been lost so many years
earlier: farmland.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Through the joint
efforts of each family member, the economic blunder of Joseph, Sr. seemed to be
erased.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the young and impressionable
Joseph Smith, Jr., these early experiences in which his family labored together
for the common good became the initial incubators of the Zionistic leanings he
would later exhibit in adulthood.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
economic communalism of the Smith family would essentially become a model for
the soon-to-be Mormon prophet, who would later instill in his parishioners
these same values, which in turn became the building blocks for Mormonism’s
communal Utopia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<h1 style="margin-left: .25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Tahoma",sans-serif; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">II. Birth of a Prophet<o:p></o:p></span></b></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">The Smith family’s
move to Palmyra, New York, though hardly a trek across the vast continent of
North America or a journey into uncharted territory, was, nonetheless, a
dramatic change of location.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After all,
western New York was still considered frontier land, where only limited
infrastructure and settlement helped to sustain the massive influx of settlers
to the area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Despite the region’s
upstart status at the beginning of the nineteenth century, changes brought on
by the Market Revolution helped to catapult New York to the forefront of
American economics, surpassing New Orleans, Charleston, and Savannah as the
nation’s primary shipping port.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, construction of the Erie Canal
guaranteed western New Yorkers and other citizens of the interior lands greater
access to the riches of the market economy.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[20]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By dramatically cutting down the prices of
shipping, the Erie Canal literally transformed the economic landscape of New
York’s interior settlements.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">Though central to
the development of western New York, The Market Revolution’s impact was forced
to share the stage with another movement of equally significant influence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the early years of the nineteenth century,
religious enthusiasm was sweeping across western New York with the intensity of
a wildfire burning out of control.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is
no wonder that the great evangelist preacher, Charles Finney, would label the
region the “burnt-over district.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The movement’s propensity for passionate
exhortation and latter-day apocalypse literally infested the numerous
denominations of the region, causing them to reassert their claims to divine
inspiration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Joseph Smith took note of
this movement when he wrote the following:<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There
was in the place where we lived an unusual excitement on the subject of <span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It
commenced with the Methodists, but soon became general among all <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>the sects in that
region of the country, indeed the whole district of the Country <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>seemed
affected by it and great multitudes united themselves to the different <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>religious
parties, which created no small stir and division among the <span style="mso-tab-count: 4;"> </span>people…Priest
contended against priest, and convert against convert so that all <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>their good
feelings one for another were entirely lost in a strife of words and a <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>contest about
opinions.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">Faced with the
duel forces of the Market Revolution and religious fundamentalism, the Smith
family struggled to make sense of their new surroundings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like most people, the Smiths turned to
religion for clarity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Joseph Smith’s
mother, Lucy, attended numerous Methodist revivals and eventually chose to
align herself with the faith.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[23]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Her husband, however, refused to support
Lucy’s beliefs, and instead chose to embrace the rationalist teachings of
Universalism and the writings of Thomas Paine.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[24]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Smith children were also encouraged to
attend religious services, which were in no short supply in western New
York.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though opposed to an open
affiliation with a specific faith, Joseph Smith, Jr. maintained a strong
interest in religion, and attended a large number of revivals in the area.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For a brief time, Smith became partial to
his mother’s Methodist faith, but chose to forego any strict religious
affiliation, due to the “confusion and strife amongst the different
denominations.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[25]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith’s skepticism was both understandable
and typical.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The majority of churchgoers
in the region found it supremely difficult to “profess” any one specific
religion, and instead chose to attend a variety of different faiths.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[26]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Despite his choice to remain unaffiliated,
Joseph Smith continued to be concerned about the question of religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In his personal history Joseph Smith wrote,
“In the midst of this war of words, and tumult of opinions, I often said to
myself, what is to be done?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Who of all
these parties is right…and how shall I know?”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn27" name="_ftnref27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[27]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">Joseph Smith’s
skepticism about religion, though often attributed to youthful curiosity, had a
much deeper origin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith’s ancestry is
replete with individuals who questioned organized religion and sought to
commune with God on an individual level.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Lucy Smith’s older brother, Jason, became a religious “Seeker” and
decided to leave home and wander across North America, where he preached his
own brand of Christianity and received “great manifestations of the power of
God in healing the sick.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn28" name="_ftnref28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[28]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While on her deathbed, Lovisa, Lucy’s older
sister, professed to have seen a vision of Jesus Christ prepared to receive her
into eternal peace.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn29" name="_ftnref29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[29]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even Joseph Smith, Jr.’s father, Joseph, Sr.,
laid claim to a number of paranormal visions in which God allegedly revealed to
his mind the destructive nature of organized religion.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn30" name="_ftnref30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[30]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>With
a family history of unorthodox communion with deity, it comes as no surprise
that Joseph Smith, Jr. would desire to communicate with God on his own terms as
well. Instead of seeking the guidance of family, friends or a particular
pastor, Joseph Smith decided to petition the heavens himself, hoping he would
receive some form of an enlightened manifestation on the question of
religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Smith put it, “My object in
going to inquire of the Lord was to know which of all the sects was right, that
I might know which to join.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn31" name="_ftnref31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[31]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a manner similar to that of his ancestors,
Joseph Smith claimed that his petition to God was answered in the form of a
heavenly vision, in which he saw “two personages, whose brightness and glory
defy all description, standing above me in the air.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith claimed that the “personages” were none
other than the God of heaven and Jesus Christ, who both told him to avoid all
forms of organized religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith
stated that the heavenly visitors informed him that the religions of the world
had strayed from the true teachings of Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“They teach for doctrines the commandments of
men: having a form of godliness but denying the power thereof.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn32" name="_ftnref32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[32]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the young Joseph Smith, this “First
Vision” would be only one in a series of paranormal visitations and communions
with the heavens that would serve to convince Smith of his divine purpose.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Because
of Joseph Smith’s alleged visions of celestial proportion, it is common to find
skeptics who choose to portray the Mormon prophet as a rogue of religious
radicalism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith himself acknowledged
the fact that his “visions” were received with “great prejudice against me
among the professors of religion.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn33" name="_ftnref33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[33]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Despite such allegations, one must remember
that Joseph Smith was anything but a religious anomaly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As one Smith biographer stated, “Joseph Smith
was not a mutation, spewed up out of nature’s plenty without regard to ancestry
or the provincial culture of his state.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn34" name="_ftnref34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[34]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In other words, Joseph Smith and his
paranormal experiences can and should be seen as representative of the world in
which he lived.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>When
it comes to paranormal claims and heavenly visions, Joseph Smith was far from
alone.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As mentioned before, western New
York was a literal hotbed of religious radicalism in the early years of the
nineteenth century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In his meticulous
micro-history of the region, historian Whitney Cross has identified the cause
of such fanaticism as being, “A solid Yankee inheritance,” which, “endowed the
people of this area with moral intensity,” and eventually swelled during the
resurgence of evangelistic religion.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn35" name="_ftnref35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[35]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To make matters even more complicated, the
Market Revolution’s intense pressures on the region caused the overburdened of
society to seek religion as a refuge from capitalist zeal.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn36" name="_ftnref36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[36]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Religious enthusiasts like Ann Lee, who
became the founder of the Shaker movement, inspired her followers to embrace a
communal lifestyle of celibacy and nonresistance, claiming that she had
received a divine manifestation of Christ’s impending return.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jemima Wilkinson, who founded the Community
of the Publick Universal Friend, also claimed divine revelation, and insisted
that Christ had chosen her as his personal messenger, sent to prepare the world
for millennial glory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like Ann Lee,
Wilkinson also established a communal order of celibacy and economic equality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The New Israelites, led by a man named
Winchell and Oliver Cowdery, also preached divine revelation that pointed to an
impending millennial apocalypse.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn37" name="_ftnref37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[37]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When put in the light of his contemporaries,
Joseph Smith’s paranormal claims seem less atypical and more mainstream.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Perhaps
the most controversial of Joseph Smith’s alleged visions had nothing to do with
a communion with God or an impending millennial apocalypse, but instead dealt
with ancient scripture.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Roughly three
years after his “first vision,” Smith made the claim that yet another heavenly
messenger brought him word of a sacred text, written on golden plates, which
allegedly “contained the fullness of the everlasting gospel.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn38" name="_ftnref38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[38]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith claimed that the heavenly messenger
revealed to his mind the location of the ancient text, along with the “seer
stones” needed for its translation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Smith’s attempts to recover the ancient record, however, proved
futile.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Smith, the
messenger prevented him from taking the golden plates, stating that “Satan
would try to tempt me (in consequence of the indigent circumstances of my
father’s family) to get the plates for the purpose of getting rich.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This he forbid me, stating that I must have
no other object in view…but to glorify God.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn39" name="_ftnref39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[39]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, Smith was admonished to prepare
himself for the appropriate time when the golden record would be entrusted to
him.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Though
preposterous as the notion of ancient golden scripture and buried treasure may
seem today, Joseph Smith’s claims are, yet again, typical of his generation.
The idea that buried treasure abounded and that ancient Indian records were
somewhere to be found was a common belief throughout the northern United
States.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As historian Richard Bushman
points out, “Money-digging was an epidemic in upstate New York…Buried treasure
was tied into a great stock of magical practices extending back many
centuries.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn40" name="_ftnref40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[40]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whitney Cross states that, “Legends of buried
treasure were indeed widespread…reaching back to the first explorers of the
American continent.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn41" name="_ftnref41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[41]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Scores of Americans resorted to the use of
“seer stones” in an effort to uncover the hidden location of buried
treasure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Brigham Young, a well-to-do
carpenter and blacksmith who eventually became a prominent Mormon leader, made
the claim that “every man who lived on the earth was entitled to a seer
stone.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even Joseph Smith and his
father, Joseph, Sr., had engaged in the practice of “money-digging,” using a
small black “seer stone” that Joseph, Jr. had found while digging a well.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn42" name="_ftnref42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[42]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perhaps, as Smith biographer Fawn Brodie
points out, Joseph Smith’s alleged golden plates were nothing more than Smith’s
imagination, “spilling over like a spring freshet.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn43" name="_ftnref43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[43]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or perhaps the alleged heavenly messenger’s
refusal to let Joseph Smith take the golden plates was an effort to purge the
young man from his “money-digging” habits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Either way, it is clear that Joseph Smith’s early paranormal experiences
with deity helped to shape his view of religion and of his purpose in life.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">Though deeply
moved by Joseph, Jr.’s paranormal visions and alleged golden plates, the Smith
family was still forced to deal with the rigors of everyday life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The rollercoaster nature of the market
economy, particularly during the Panic of 1819, had caused serious concerns as
to the family’s economic future.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Fortunately for Joseph, Sr. and Lucy, the Smith parents were able to
rely heavily on the labors of their three eldest sons: Alvin, Hyrum and Joseph,
Jr.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Smith’s eldest son, Alvin, was
of particular importance to the Family’s well being.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, Alvin had been a cosigner to the
contract on the family’s one hundred acre land purchase in Palmyra.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn44" name="_ftnref44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[44]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whether it was his father’s bad credit or his
inability to “set the example before my family that I ought,” Alvin had
essentially taken upon himself the additional responsibility as a second father
of sorts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During this time of economic
uncertainty it was not Joseph, Sr., but Alvin that admonished his family to
“not slacken our hands or we will not be able to complete our task.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn45" name="_ftnref45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[45]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the first payments on the family farm
came due, it was Alvin who “went from home to get work, in order to raise the
money.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the family’s joint economic
efforts permitted the construction of a larger home, Lucy noted that the
“management and control” of its construction fell “chiefly upon Alvin.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn46" name="_ftnref46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[46]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Smith family’s communal efforts to
prosper on their newly established farm, primarily motivated by the efforts of
Alvin, had given Joseph, Sr. and Lucy a second chance at securing for
themselves and their children a measure of worldly prosperity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">The economic
stability that the Smith family had worked so hard to secure was unfortunately
destined to be short-lived.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In November
of 1823, Lucy noted that Alvin “was suddenly taken very sick with the bilious
colic,” which doctors were unable to treat.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn47" name="_ftnref47" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn47;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[47]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After gathering his siblings around him in
more the fashion of a father than that of a brother, Alvin admonished them to,
“make our dear parents comfortable,” and, “remember the example that I have set
for you.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn48" name="_ftnref48" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn48;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[48]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shortly thereafter Alvin quietly passed away,
causing understandable grief to the Smith family.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Alvin’s untimely death at the age of
twenty-five was not only a terrible tragedy in the loss of a family member, but
was also a massive blow to the family’s economic well-being.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Alvin had become the most essential link in
the family’s communal economic machine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>His undaunted courage and tireless work ethic in the face of poverty was
indispensable to the family.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Without
him, the Smith family yet again faced the prospect of economic peril.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To make matters worse, Joseph, Sr. and Lucy’s
decision to build a new home, coupled with the fact that their farm was still
not paid off, brought additional concerns to the family’s growing economic
anxiety.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">Alvin’s death was
especially difficult for Joseph, Jr., who had developed a deep love and respect
for his eldest brother.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later in his
life, Joseph Jr. would remember Alvin’s death, “with the pangs of sorrow that
swelled my youthful bosom and almost burst my tender heart…He was one of the
noblest of all the sons of men.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn49" name="_ftnref49" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn49;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[49]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For young Joseph, Jr., Alvin’s death
essentially became a wakeup call that hastened his prophetic future. Alvin had
always been the most vehement supporter of Joseph’s visions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On his deathbed, Alvin had even admonished
Joseph, Jr. to, “do everything that lies in your power to obtain the golden
record.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn50" name="_ftnref50" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn50;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[50]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The profound impact of his family’s trials
left an indelible impression on the young Joseph Smith, who would later use
these experiences to empathize with the plight of his earliest followers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Smith biographer, Richard Bushman put it,
“He had endured the agonies of thousands in his generation and could speak to
their sorrows.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn51" name="_ftnref51" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn51;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[51]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Having walked through the refiner’s fire of
economic, familial and religious turmoil, Joseph Smith’s sense of himself and
his destiny was beginning to take shape.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Mormon prophet was born.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<h1 style="margin-left: .25in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Tahoma",sans-serif; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">III. “Establish My Zion”<o:p></o:p></span></b></h1>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Despite
his numerous encounters with deity, Joseph Smith’s awareness of his prophetic
mission was never announced by a sudden revelation or heavenly
manifestation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead it was a gradual
process by which Smith came to a self-realization of what he believed God was
trying to communicate to him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Smith
said of himself, “I am like a huge, rough stone rolling down from a high mountain…knocking
off a corner here and a corner there.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Thus I will become a smooth and polished shaft in the quiver of the
Almighty.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn52" name="_ftnref52" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn52;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[52]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
most important factor in the “polishing” of Joseph Smith’s prophetic mission
centered exclusively on the alleged “golden plates.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As stated earlier, one of Joseph Smith’s
chief paranormal visitations dealt with the location of a hidden ancient
record, supposedly written on golden plates.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Smith’s early attempts to retrieve the record were met with a divine
rebuttal, which warned Smith of the dangers of worldly wealth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now in the early years of adulthood, Smith’s
resolve to “obtain the record…to glorify God” was met with a more positive
outcome.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn53" name="_ftnref53" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn53;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[53]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On September 22, 1827, Joseph Smith claimed
that he was finally given permission to obtain the “golden record” and to
commence its translation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eighteen
months later, Joseph Smith presented the world with a unique and controversial
religious text that propelled him to the forefront of America’s religious
community.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The impact of this “golden”
record, which eventually became known to the world as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of Mormon</i>, was to be of paramount importance to the
establishment of Mormon theology. As Joseph Smith himself stated, “I told the
brethren that the Book of Mormon was the most correct of any book on earth, and
the keystone of our religion, and a man would get nearer to God by abiding by
its precepts, than by any other book.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn54" name="_ftnref54" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn54;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[54]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Aside
from its doctrinal appeal, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of
Mormon </i>can and should be analyzed as a pro-Zionist text, which helped
Joseph Smith finely tune both his prophetic mission and his communal
philosophy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As one of its central
theses, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of Mormon</i> relates
the tale of two rival societies, whose peace and prosperity are solely
determined by the communal faith and devotion of their respective populace.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On numerous occasions, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of Mormon</i> makes specific mention of how God intends to
grant specific blessings, which are exclusively reserved for those that seek to
establish Zion: “<span style="color: #333333;">And blessed are they who shall
seek to bring forth my Zion at that day, for they shall have the gift and the
power of the Holy Ghost; and if they endure unto the end they shall be lifted
up at the last day, and shall be saved in the everlasting kingdom of the Lamb.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn55" name="_ftnref55" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn55;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[55]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition to
everlasting life, the God of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of
Mormon </i>promises worldly protection against the foes of his elect people:
“And all that fight against Zion shall be destroyed…For behold, the righteous
shall not perish; for the time surely must come that all they who fight against
Zion shall be cut off.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn56" name="_ftnref56" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn56;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[56]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Despite these promises, the God of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of Mormon</i> does not neglect to
mention the punishments that await the unfaithful.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“But the laborer in Zion shall labor for
Zion; for if they labor for money they shall perish…Therefore, wo be unto him
that is at ease in Zion!”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn57" name="_ftnref57" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn57;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[57]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To further its
abhorrence of worldly greed, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of
Mormon </i></span>lists several examples of how vanity and worldliness served
to corrupt and eventually destroy God’s covenant people.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Book
of Mormon </i>prophet named Alma took particular note of how his people’s pride
and vanity had warped their sense of communal responsibility: <span style="color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><span style="color: #333333;">For we saw and beheld with great sorrow that the people
of the church began</span> <span style="color: #333333;">to <span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>be
lifted up in the pride of their eyes, and to set their hearts upon riches and
upon <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>the vain
things of the world, that they began to be scornful, one towards another, <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>and they began
to persecute those that did not believe according to their own will <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>and pleasure.</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn58" name="_ftnref58" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn58;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[58]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">The book’s concluding prophet,
Mormon (who was allegedly the principle author of the ancient record), gives
special mention to the fact that his people’s tragic demise was entirely the
result of their unfaithfulness: “O ye fair ones, how could ye have departed
from the ways of the Lord…Behold, if ye had not done this, ye would not have
fallen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But behold, ye are fallen, and I
mourn your loss.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn59" name="_ftnref59" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn59;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[59]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>For
a young man who had endured economic turmoil and religious fanaticism while in
his youth, the doctrine of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of
Mormon</i> provided both clarity and purpose.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Market Revolution’s emphasis on personal gain and worldly wealth was
shrouded in the evil vanities mentioned in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Book of Mormon</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For Joseph Smith and
his followers, God’s biblical admonition to, “<span style="color: #333333;">Love
not the world, neither the things that are in the world” took on a new meaning
in the emerging capitalist</span> climate of the early nineteenth century.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"> <a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn60" name="_ftnref60" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn60;" title=""><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[60]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By placing their faith in the idea that, “the
Lord hath founded Zion, and the poor of his people shall trust in it,” scores
of downtrodden citizens found a glimmer of hope in the newly emerging doctrine
of Mormon Zionism.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn61" name="_ftnref61" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn61;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[61]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Despite
the zeal of his early followers, Joseph Smith never publically revealed a
desire to create a church or Zionist community.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In fact, Smith often considered his prophetic role to be terminated upon
his completed translation of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Book of
Mormon</i>.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn62" name="_ftnref62" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn62;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[62]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Despite these sentiments, Joseph Smith would
eventually lay claim to a divine admonition that instructed him to “Seek to
bring forth and establish my Zion.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn63" name="_ftnref63" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn63;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[63]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This heavenly petition was followed up by
another, which allegedly commanded Joseph Smith to establish a church, “in
which thou shalt be called a seer, a translator, a prophet, an apostle of Jesus
Christ…Being inspired of the Holy Ghost to lay the foundation thereof, and to
build it up unto the most holy faith…For thus saith the Lord God: Him have I
inspired to move the cause of Zion.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn64" name="_ftnref64" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn64;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[64]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
official establishment of the Mormon Church (known as The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints) was nothing more than a tiny gathering of a
handful of individuals in the small town of Fayette, New York.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With a small number of members and even fewer
resources, the Mormon Church looked like it would surely follow the same dismal
fate that had captured other Zionist movements during this era. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the first half of the nineteenth
century, the rise of these Zionist communities continued to augment as the
Market Revolution’s grasp on society became more apparent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Between 1787 and 1860, the American continent
was literally saturated with over 130 different societies dedicated to communal
subsistence.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn65" name="_ftnref65" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn65;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[65]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For Joseph Smith and his earliest followers,
this initial experiment in forming a communal religious community was anything
but atypical for its era.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, Smith
was helping to keep alive many of the traditional social practices that had
fallen victim to the Market Revolution’s influence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Whitney Cross points out, “His degree of
communism resurrected the strong sense of social obligation that all should
have for each other and each for all, which had been long declining in the
Puritan tradition of old New England.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn66" name="_ftnref66" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn66;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[66]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>For
these early Mormons, establishing a communal society proved a much more
daunting task than initially thought.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The emerging market society of western New York, combined with its
hostile reception of the doctrine contained in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of Mormon</i> forced Joseph Smith and his followers to look
elsewhere for their blessed Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
response to these problems, Joseph Smith again laid claim to divine
intervention that commanded the Mormon prophet to move his flock west into
Ohio.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn67" name="_ftnref67" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn67;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[67]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In response to Smith’s alleged revelation,
hundreds of early Mormon converts sold their homes and made their way to the
town of Kirtland, Ohio, where Smith promised his followers the communal peace
they had longed for.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Though
more of a frontier society than western New York, Kirtland, Ohio was similar in
many ways to Smith’s childhood in Palmyra.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The city was situated just a few miles from Lake Erie, and became a
staging point for goods being shipped to and from Cleveland.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn68" name="_ftnref68" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn68;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[68]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The rapid influx of the Market Revolution,
combined with the added luxury of canal transportation was beginning to shape
northern Ohio in the same fashion that it had shaped New York.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For a community determined to resist the perceived
“evils” of capitalist economics, Smith’s decision to settle in Kirtland, Ohio
seems both bizarre and foolish.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this
reason, it is important to recognize the fact that Joseph Smith never
acknowledged Kirtland as God’s chosen location for his city of Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In many ways, Smith saw Kirtland as nothing
more than a stop off point in their quest to establish Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Based on his experiences with the flourishing
market economy in New York, it comes as no surprise that Joseph Smith would be
somewhat reluctant to label Kirtland as Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Despite Smith’s apparent reservations, the
future success of the Mormon movement was dependant on Kirtland’s emerging
economy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As scores of Mormon settlers
began settling into their newfound Ohio home, Joseph Smith and his fellow
leaders became increasingly aware of their impoverished nature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith was also conscious of the fact that
establishing a tangible city of communal peace would require a tremendous
amount of wealth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With this in mind,
Joseph Smith acted against his anti-capitalist leanings and endeavored to raise
the needed capital by appealing to the practices of Market economics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, Smith created the Kirtland
Safety Society Bank, “for the purpose of Speculation…and the desired upbuilding
of the Kingdom of God.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn69" name="_ftnref69" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn69;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[69]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To raise the needed capital, the bank set up
its capital stock at $4 million dollars, which unfortunately yielded a dismal
$21,000 in cash assets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the needed
cash did not come in, Smith and his associates hoped to back the rest of the
bank’s issue with land.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately
for Smith and his collaborators, the bank set up an expectation for redeemable
hard currency, which investors were never able to obtain.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn70" name="_ftnref70" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn70;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[70]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
backlash over the bank fiasco was almost immediate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The investors in Smith’s bank (almost all of
whom were Mormons) expressed outrage over their lost investments, which they
felt were divinely protected since a prophet was at the helm.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith responded to these criticisms by
insisting that the bank was not created out of divine revelation, and therefore
had no divine protection.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn71" name="_ftnref71" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn71;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[71]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>William E. McLellin, an apostle in the Mormon
Faith, who eventually left the church over its fiscal practices in Kirtland,
stated, “The Kirtland Bank…ran long enough to get monied men of the church to
take stock in it; but it broke down to the financial ruin of many confidential
men”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn72" name="_ftnref72" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn72;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[72]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Wilford Woodruff, a leader within the Mormon community and a devout friend of
Joseph Smith, stated in his journal that the bank’s failure had revealed the
true nature of many within the church, who had become “covenant breakers” and
“traitors” to the true church of Christ.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn73" name="_ftnref73" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn73;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[73]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Church leaders insisted that Joseph Smith was
not to blame, but instead pointed their wrath at the “cursed apostates…that
prevented that bank from being conducted as the Prophet designed.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Church leaders insisted that if Joseph Smith
had been allowed to control the bank as he had planned, “there is no doubt but
that it would have been the leading bank in Ohio and probably of the nation.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn74" name="_ftnref74" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn74;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[74]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Further
problems began to mount on Joseph Smith and his followers in wake of the bank
fiasco.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Citizens in Ohio were beginning
to grow tired of their new visitors, who were rapidly becoming both a serious
religious and political presence in the state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>To make matters worse, many of the Mormon settlers had begun to prosper
economically thanks to Ohio’s emerging market economy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, a large number of early converts
became disgruntled over the lack of progress in establishing Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>William E. McLellin became one of the loudest
voices of dissent, claiming that church leadership had become corrupted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“When I saw them go into drunkenness and into
ruinous speculation, pride and folly, I peaceably withdrew from them.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn75" name="_ftnref75" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn75;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[75]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>McLellin continued his haranguing of the
Mormons by declaring them to be nothing more than selfish speculators of
worldly greed:<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Soon
fine dresses and fine parties were the go; and soon a fine ride was <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>determined upon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some fifteen couples hired fine carriages
with fine harness and <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>fine
horse…They put up at a fine first class tavern…some of them became <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>intoxicated and
they broke up about $200 dollars worth of dishes and furniture.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>The
next morning they paid their bill and set out for home…no confessions were <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>ever required or
made in the church for this wild goose chase.<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn76" name="_ftnref76" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn76;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[76]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">McLellin’s
remarks, which eventually earned him an excommunication from the Mormon Faith,
did cause Church leaders to take note and reassess their objective in
establishing Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, Joseph Smith
had been concerned about the status of his followers for quite some time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shortly after his arrival to Ohio, Smith
planned a trek into western Missouri to scout out some available land.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was during this excursion that Joseph
Smith allegedly received a divine revelation that proclaimed Jackson County
(specifically the city of Independence) as the place for God’s Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“<a name="2"></a><span style="color: #333333;">Wherefore,
this is the land of promise, and the place for the city of Zion. <a name="3"></a>And
thus saith the Lord your God, if you will receive wisdom here is wisdom.
Behold, the place which is now called Independence is the center place.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn77" name="_ftnref77" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn77;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[77]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition to
revealing the location for God’s city of Zion, Smith’s alleged revelation gave
additional commandments to purchase as much of the land as possible, have it
evenly divided amongst its inhabitants, and establish a store for the selling
of goods.</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn78" name="_ftnref78" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn78;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[78]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #333333;">To further the special nature of this holy land located
on the fringe of American society, Joseph Smith claimed that God intended Zion
to become a “New Jerusalem,” where he would prepare the world for the
anticipated return of Christ and the commencement of his millennial reign.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Joseph Smith stated in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Thirteen Articles of Mormon Faith</i>, “We
believe in the literal gathering of Israel and in the restoration of the Ten
Tribes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That Zion (the New Jerusalem)
will be built upon the American continent.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn79" name="_ftnref79" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn79;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[79]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The idea of a
“New Jerusalem” brought additional meaning to the Mormon concept of Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a manner similar to John Winthrop’s
proclamation of Massachusetts as a “city on a hill,” Joseph Smith’s “New
Jerusalem” was to not only be a communal society of pious disciples, but an
“ensign unto the people” of every nation.</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn80" name="_ftnref80" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn80;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[80]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #333333;">With such a bold proclamation as to its heavenly purpose,
it comes as no surprise that the quest to establish God’s “New Jerusalem”
became the premiere doctrine of Mormon Theology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The drive to establish a Utopian world free
from the discord of worldly affairs was an appealing alternative when
juxtaposed with the cutthroat nature of the emerging market society.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is therefore no surprise that the Mormon
community found scores of new converts that were willing to embrace a communal
lifestyle, which shunned the malevolence of the world around them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In conjunction with their anticipation of
millennial ecstasy, the Mormon message became a powerful beacon of hope in a
world of cruelty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Mormon hymn <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">O Saints of Zion </i>provides an in-depth
look into how these feelings of millennial anticipation and communal devotion
helped shape Mormon identity:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>O
saints of Zion, hear the voice Of Him from courts on high.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Prepare
the pathway of the Lord; His reign on earth is nigh.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Prepare
the supper of the Lamb; Invite the world to dine.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Behold
the mighty Bridegroom comes In majesty divine.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Behold
the glory of the Lord Sets Zion’s mount aglow.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>For
Zion is an ensign pure; All nations to her flow.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>O
Saints of Zion tread the paths Your faithful fathers trod.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Lift
up your hears in gratitude And serve the living God.</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn81" name="_ftnref81" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn81;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[81]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Whether he knew it or not, Joseph
Smith’s proclamation of Independence, Missouri as God’s chosen setting for the
land of Zion sent off a shockwave of excitement throughout the Mormon
community.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hundreds of devout Mormons
eagerly prepared to leave for Missouri immediately, hoping to participate in
Zion’s holy mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For Joseph Smith
and his fellow leaders, this massive influx of hopeful settlers posed a
daunting task.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Mormon Church still
lacked the money necessary to purchase the lands in and around Independence,
Missouri.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, a large
percentage of the Mormon population was too impoverished to be able to make the
required move.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Faced with these seemingly
insurmountable obstacles, Joseph Smith sought and received help from the one
source that had shaped every major decision throughout his life: his divine
communion with deity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In his newest
paranormal encounter, Smith claimed that God commanded him to instruct his
followers to “consecrate” all of their moneys and possessions to the church.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this new “Law of Consecration,” church
members would willingly give up all they possessed to the cause of Zion,
receiving in return both a land inheritance in Zion and what was needed for
their immediate support.</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn82" name="_ftnref82" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn82;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[82]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This new law
became the standard by which admission into Zion, along with one’s eternal
salvation were measured.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Joseph Smith
stated, “a man is bound by the law of the Church to consecrate to the Bishop,
before he can be considered a legal heir to the kingdom of Zion…and unless he
does this, he cannot be acknowledged before the Lord.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn83" name="_ftnref83" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn83;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[83]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
implementation of the Law of Consecration not only deepened the communal ties
of Zion’s citizens, but it provided the Mormon Church with the needed capital
to begin purchasing land in Missouri. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Through all of the tribulation that
had begun with the translation of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Book
of Mormon</i> and continued into their settlement in Ohio, Joseph Smith and his
followers had managed not only to increase the size and influence of their
newfound faith, but had successfully achieved their ultimate goal of establishing
Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While still in its infancy, the
Mormon experiment with communalism had already surpassed many of its
predecessors, becoming a cohesive body of devout disciples that embraced a
doctrine of secular suspicion and millennial anticipation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its rejection of market principles solidified
Mormonism’s resolve to defend the downtrodden and liberate the oppressed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the minds of the faithful, Zion was here
to say.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h4><span style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">IV. The Pure in
Heart<o:p></o:p></span></h4>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #333333;">For the devout Mormon, Joseph Smith’s admonition to
“consecrate” all of one’s<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;">money
and possessions was similar to Jesus Christ’s counsel to the rich man to, “go
and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor...and follow me.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn84" name="_ftnref84" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn84;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[84]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hundreds of
Mormon converts were overjoyed not only to relocate to Missouri, but also to part
with all of their possessions in the hopes that their efforts might further the
cause of Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The diary of William
Clayton, an early convert to Mormonism, relates how fervently Smith’s followers
embraced this new law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Clayton wrote
that, “When this order was understood by the Saints, the business of the order
increased rapidly…so rapidly that he [Joseph Smith] could not keep pace with
it.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn85" name="_ftnref85" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn85;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[85]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the rapid
influx of converts and capital continued to augment, Joseph Smith and the rest
of the Mormon leadership found it increasingly difficult to keep up with the
flood of zealous settlers, who were+ eager to make their claims in Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, Joseph Smith encouraged his
followers to follow a gradual migration, which would allow for an organized
settlement of their chosen land.</span> <span style="color: #333333;">“It would
be pleasing to the Lord that the Churches going to Zion should be organized…and
those in debt should in all cases pay off their debts first.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn86" name="_ftnref86" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn86;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[86]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Mormon
leader George A. Smith echoed the prophet’s sentiments, which called for all
Mormons to be prudent with their money.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Don’t let us get so rich that we can’t go to heaven; and don’t let us
get so poor that we can’t contribute our mite to help roll on the work of
God…We don’t want to go to either extreme.”<a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn87" name="_ftnref87" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn87;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[87]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;">Instead
of a collective marching towards the “promised land” like Moses of old, Joseph
Smith’s “New Jerusalem” was to be realized one small step at a time.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>One can only imagine the feelings of
excitement and apprehension that gripped the earliest Mormon settlers of Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their arrival to Independence, Missouri,
which was nothing more than a remote outpost on America’s frontier, must have
reminded many of them of their Pilgrim ancestors who had migrated across the
Atlantic to establish a religious Utopia of their own.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With only a handful of fur trappers and
Native American traders, Independence was a far cry from what the Mormons had
experienced in Kirtland.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though most of
the state was still considered frontier land, the early advances of the Market
Revolution had begun to take hold in Missouri as well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thanks to the Missouri Compromise of 1820,
which admitted Missouri into the Union as a slave state, thousands of
slave-owners migrated west in an effort to stake their claim.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, scores of zealous fur traders, who
anxiously hoped to expand their business westward, used Missouri as an access
point of sorts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, Missouri’s
population swelled to roughly 140,000 in 1830.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>By 1840, the population had more than doubled to over 300,000.</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn88" name="_ftnref88" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn88;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[88]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Missouri’s
reputation as the “Gateway State” obviously had an appeal that included much
more than the Mormon population.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Joseph
Smith’s utopian hopes had yet again landed the Mormons in the center of an
emerging market-centered community.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Though troubling to their cause, the
emerging market economy of Missouri was only part of the problem that concerned
Zion’s future.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By the early 1830s, the
United States was gripped by an issue that would eventually tear it asunder.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The problem of slavery had caused thousands
of Americans to actively support the cause of abolitionism, and in turn forced
Missouri to take center stage in the arena of American politics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a newly added slave state, both
abolitionists and slave-owners understood the importance of inundating Missouri
with citizens who supported their respective positions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Naturally, the influx of Mormons to the area
instigated an intense feeling of tension and concern in both the pro-slavery
and abolitionist camps.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though the
overwhelming majority of Mormon converts were Yankee-born, nobody was quite
sure where the Mormons officially stood on the “Negro question.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When initially questioned about the Church’s
position on slavery, Joseph Smith unequivocally declared that abolitionism was
designed to, “lay waste the fair states of the South, and let loose upon the
world a community of people, who might, peradventure, overrun our society and
violate the most sacred principles of human society, chastity and virtue.</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn89" name="_ftnref89" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn89;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[89]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith also
declared his support for the notion that the Negro was cursed of God, and
should be “a servant unto his brethren.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn90" name="_ftnref90" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn90;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[90]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Despite these claims, most
Northern-born Mormons publically detested the “peculiar institution” of
slavery, declaring that it was an abomination in the sight of God.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, Smith himself would later reverse
his position, claiming that society should “Break off the shackles from the
poor black man.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn91" name="_ftnref91" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn91;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[91]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result,
public sentiment towards the Mormons and their Zion grew to a hostile
crescendo.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Slave owners found the
Mormons to be an unwelcome lot of religious radicals that threatened their way
of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In consequence, a fever of
anti-Mormon sentiment swept across the Missouri countryside.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>To help “persuade” these religious
“radicals” of their errors, the Mormon opposition in Missouri resorted to
violence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mormon churches, homes and
businesses were regularly destroyed and then blamed on the Mormon
leadership.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Joseph Smith and other
leaders were routinely imprisoned, tarred and feathered, and given poison while
incarcerated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mormon women, some of whom
were still in their youth, were the unfortunate victims of mob rape.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One woman in particular was left bound and
naked in a Mormon church, where sixteen men repeatedly raped her.</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn92" name="_ftnref92" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn92;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[92]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The persecution
eventually became so intense that the Missouri government prohibited Mormons
from voting or owning property.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
anti-Mormon sentiment even permeated the executive office of the state, where
Governor Lilburn Boggs declared that, “the Mormons must be subdued…and if it
should become necessary for the public peace…should be exterminated or expelled
from the state.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn93" name="_ftnref93" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn93;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[93]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The attempts by Mormon leadership to
petition Missouri for redress were met with deaf ears.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, Joseph Smith sought the help of
the federal government, where he hoped that the constitutional rights of his
followers would be upheld.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Smith was
able to secure an audience with President Martin Van Buren, in the hopes that
the President would be able to guarantee Zion’s protection.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately for Smith, this meeting would
be the fatal coup de grace to Zion’s future.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In the meeting, President Van Buren informed Smith that, “I can do
nothing for you.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If I do anything, I
shall come in contact with the whole state of Missouri.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn94" name="_ftnref94" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn94;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[94]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With the rapidly
approaching election, Van Buren’s desire to avoid instigating the wrath of
slaveholders completely overshadowed the government’s responsibility to protect
the constitutional rights of its Mormon citizenry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For Smith and his followers, the hopes of
delivering Zion from danger were coming to a swift conclusion.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>With mounting persecution and no
means to seek redress, Joseph Smith and his followers were forced to abdicate
their landholdings in Jackson County.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Those who had willingly given up all of their property and assets for
the construction of Zion were left completely destitute with little to no
prospects of reclaiming their wealth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Understandably, a large number of these early Mormon converts forsook
their faith and returned to their roots.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>After all, Zion had been the principle component of early Mormon
theology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In many respects it was the
equivalent of what the Kaaba is for the Muslim or the Vatican is for the
Catholic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For many Mormons, Zion’s
defeat essentially signified a defeat of Mormonism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Virtually all of one’s faith, hope and
salvation were dependant upon Zion’s success, or as one revelation put it, “For
if ye are not <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">equal</span></span><b>
</b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">in</span></span><b>
</b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">earthly</span></span><b>
</b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">things</span></span>
ye cannot be equal in obtaining heavenly <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">things.</span></span>”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn95" name="_ftnref95" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn95;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[95]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Simply put for
the faithful Mormon, without Zion there could be no salvation.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As the leader of his flock, Joseph
Smith was keenly aware of the important role that Zion played in Mormon
theology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the wake of the Market
Revolution’s emergence, nineteenth-century America was literally convulsing
with millennial fervor, and Smith’s Zionistic approach had an appeal that
resonated across the countryside. With Zion no longer in the picture, Joseph
Smith’s movement had little more than a new book of scripture to offer the
world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #333333;">Faced with such a daunting challenge, it comes as no surprise
that Joseph Smith, yet again, received a divine manifestation that would
forever change the scope of Zion’s appeal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>After the loss of their lands in Missouri, Joseph Smith claimed to have
received a holy revelation, which proclaimed Zion to be an indestructible
institution, where the faithful would forever bask in the glory of God
himself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the revelation stated, “Zion
is the city of our God, and surely Zion cannot fall, neither be moved out of
her place, for God is there, and the hand of the Lord is there.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn96" name="_ftnref96" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn96;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[96]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But how could
this be?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Zion’s demise in Missouri had
been a certain outcome of mob violence and political negligence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How could Zion possibly return in the wake of
such hostility?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was here that Smith’s
alleged revelation made a startling proclamation that forever changed the
concept of Mormon Zionism: “Therefore, verily, thus saith the Lord, let <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Zion</span></span>
rejoice, for this is Zion—<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Pure in
Heart</i>.”</span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn97" name="_ftnref97" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn97;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[97]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the surface,
Smith’s revelation seems to be nothing more than a play on semantics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A deeper inquiry, however, reveals that this
simple proclamation, “The Pure in Heart,” was actually a complete overhaul of
the Mormon conception of Zionism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Instead of being conceived as a palpable reality of the physical world,
Zion became a metaphysical object of personal and heavenly worth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In essence, “The Pure in Heart” signified an
individualistic approach to becoming one with both God and community.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #333333;">This new conception of Zion became even greater when
compounded with additional manifestations of the divine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a subsequent revelation, Joseph Smith
claimed to have been allegedly commanded to, “establish <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">a</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">house</span></span>, even <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">a</span></span> house <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">of</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">prayer</span></span><b>, </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">a</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">house</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">of</span></span> fasting, <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">a</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">house</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">of</span></span> faith, <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">a</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">house</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">of</span></span> learning, <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">a</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">house</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">of</span></span> glory, <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">a</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">house</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">of</span></span> order, <span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">a</span></span><b> </b>house
<span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">of</span></span><b> </b><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;">God,” where the community
could be “sealed” together in the “New and Everlasting Covenant.”</span></span></span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn98" name="_ftnref98" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn98;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[98]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span class="searchword1"><span style="color: #333333; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The “house” spoken of in Smith’s revelation
referred to the construction of a temple, where Smith promised his followers
they would receive eternal salvation and an inheritance in Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though Smith had admonished his followers to
build temples in the past, the new definition of Zion brought an additional
measure of importance to Mormon temple worship.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Mormon temple essentially became a heavenly sanctuary where the world
and the individual could merge with the cosmos.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In addition, Joseph Smith instructed his followers that the temple was
the only way to, “unite our hearts that we may be one in feeling and
sentiment.”</span></span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn99" name="_ftnref99" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn99;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[99]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span class="searchword1"><span style="color: #333333; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was only through temple worship that one
could enter into a communal Zion, where God would bestow the blessings of
salvation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span class="searchword1"><span style="color: #333333; font-weight: normal;">For the early
Mormon, temple construction and worship was initially a mere side-note to the
greater goal of creating Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With the
loss of Missouri lands, however, the Mormon temple became a means by which the
faithful could obtain a heavenly Zion of endless abundance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The ideology behind Mormon temple worship
(which is of paramount importance in modern-day Mormonism) could not have come
to fruition without the initial loss of Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>By changing the concept behind Mormon Zionism, Joseph Smith was able to
convert a tangible city of Zion into a heavenly object of eternal desire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“The Pure in Heart” symbolized those who had
purified themselves of worldly stain and were therefore worthy of a celestial
Zion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Despite the loss of their utopian
landholdings in Missouri, Zion’s future and prosperity were well protected
through a convergence of the physical into the spiritual.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<h2 style="text-indent: 0in;"><span class="searchword1"><span style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">V. Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></span></h2>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span class="searchword1"><span style="color: #333333; font-weight: normal;">Uncovering the
true motivations behind Mormon Zionism is a difficult undertaking to say the
least.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In posing such an inquiry, one
naturally desires to question the validity of Joseph Smith’s alleged
revelations, along with his self-proclaimed prophetic mission.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Naturally, there are those who will proclaim
Smith to be nothing more than, “a mythmaker of prodigious talent,” who sought
nothing more than to redeem his family from financial distress.</span></span><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftn100" name="_ftnref100" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn100;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[100]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span class="searchword1"><span style="color: #333333; font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Others, however, will insist that Smith’s
life was spent in the labor of his fellow men, as a true prophet of God.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Determining the validity of either argument
is unquestionably a futile effort, and therefore becomes an irrelevant argument
to the historical inquiry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, Joseph
Smith and the movement he created should be understood from the perspective of
their era.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The explosion of capitalist
economics at the beginning of the nineteenth-century set the foundation upon
which Joseph Smith would construct his Utopian philosophy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The economic plight of his childhood became
the initial string of rebellion, which Joseph Smith would eventually weave into
a tapestry of capitalist defiance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With
the addition of his alleged heavenly revelations and prophetic destiny, Joseph
Smith effectively established a utopian doctrine of communal dependence and
market defiance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The widespread appeal
of his message helped Smith effectively establish a Mormon safe haven in Zion,
where the faithful were nurtured in a spirit of communalism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Once confronted by market enthusiasm and
anti-Mormon hostility, Smith’s quest to establish Zion was transformed from a
physical place of refuge into a heavenly object of eternal desire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By successfully adopting a new concept of
utopian existence, Mormon Zionism was equipped to survive into eternity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span class="searchword1"><span style="color: #333333; font-weight: normal;"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p>
<h3 align="left" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></h3>
<h3 align="left" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left; text-indent: 0in;"><span class="searchword1"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></h3>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Peter L.
Bernstein, <i>The Wedding of the Waters: The Erie Canal and the Making of a
Great Nation </i>(New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2005), 310-319.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I referred to Bernstein’s work in my attempt
to portray the 1825 celebration of the Erie Canal’s grand opening. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Charles
Sellers, <i>The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 </i>(New York:
Oxford University Press, 1991), 5.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>Doctrine
& Covenants 33:6, from <i>Doctrine & Covenants of The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints: Containing Revelations Given to Joseph Smith, the
Prophet, with Some Additions by His Predecessors in the Presidency of the
Church</i>, comp. Joseph Smith Jr., (Salt Lake City, Utah: The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1981),<i><span style="color: #333333;"> 57.</span></i>
<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Lucy
Mack Smith, <i>History of Joseph Smith by His Mother Lucy Mack Smith</i> (1853;
reprint, Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft, 1958), 32.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
32-33.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Gordon
Wood, <i>The Radicalism of the American Revolution </i>(New York: Vintage
Books, 1991), 351.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Richard
Bushman, <i>Rough Stone Rolling: A Cultural Biography of Mormonism’s Founder</i>
(New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 18.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Bushman,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rough Stone Rolling</i>, 18-19.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Wood, <i>Radicalism</i>,
140.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Lucy
Smith, <i>History</i>, 37-39.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
40.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Fawn
Brodie, <i>No Man Knows My History: The Life of Joseph Smith </i>(New York:
Vintage Books, 1971), 6.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “1839 History,” <i>The Papers of Joseph Smith</i>, ed. Dean Jessee,
vol. I, (Salt Lake City, Utah: Deseret Book Company, 1989), 282. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Lucy
Smith, <i>History</i>, 59.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
60.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Bushman, <i>Rough Stone Rolling</i>, 28.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn17" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Lucy
Smith, <i>History</i>, 63.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn18" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
64-65.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn19" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Sellers,
<i>Market Revolution</i>, 41.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn20" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[20]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
43.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn21" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Charles
Finney, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Autobiography of Charles
Finney</i> (New York: 1876; reprinted in New York: Bethany House Publishers,
1977), 78. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn22" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>Joseph
Smith, Jr., “1839 History,” <i>The Papers of Joseph Smith</i>, vol. I, 269-270.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn23" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[23]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Lucy
Smith, <i>History</i>, 90-91.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn24" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[24]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Bushman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rough Stone Rolling</i>,
26.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bushman notes that Joseph Smith
Sr.’s religious beliefs came from his childhood.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His father, Asael, taught Joseph Sr. that
organized religion was both corrupt and unnecessary for salvation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Asael installed in Joseph Sr. a rational
approach to religion, based on the writings of Thomas Paine and the teachings
of Universalism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn25" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[25]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “1839 History,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Papers of
Joseph Smith</i>, vol I, 271.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn26" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[26]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Whitney
Cross, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Burned-over District: The
Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Religion in Western New York,
1800-1850</i> (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1950), 41.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cross states that, “an overwhelming majority
of western New Yorkers sympathized with the churches and attended meetings
regularly,” but few actually joined a specific denomination.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn27" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref27" name="_ftn27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[27]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “1839 History,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Papers of
Joseph Smith</i>, vol. I, 271.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn28" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref28" name="_ftn28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[28]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Lucy
Smith, <i>History</i>,<i> </i>42.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn29" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref29" name="_ftn29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[29]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
15.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn30" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref30" name="_ftn30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[30]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Lucy
Mack Smith’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">History of the Prophet
Joseph Smith</i> gives numerous examples of these visions.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn31" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref31" name="_ftn31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[31]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “History of Joseph Smith the Prophet,” <i>The History of the Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</i>, ed. B.H. Roberts, vol. 1 (Salt Lake
City, Utah: Deseret Book, 1971), 5.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn32" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref32" name="_ftn32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[32]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
5-7.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn33" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref33" name="_ftn33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[33]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid, 7<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn34" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref34" name="_ftn34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[34]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Brodie,
<i>No Man Knows My History</i>, 1.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn35" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref35" name="_ftn35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[35]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Cross, <i>Burned-over
District</i>, 4.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn36" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref36" name="_ftn36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[36]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Sellers, <i>Market Revolution</i>, 202.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn37" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref37" name="_ftn37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[37]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Cross, <i>Burned-over
District</i>, 31-38.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cross gives a
detailed analysis on the development of each of these religious groups.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn38" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref38" name="_ftn38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[38]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
12.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn39" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref39" name="_ftn39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[39]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “1839 History,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Papers of
Joseph Smith</i>, vol. I, 280.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn40" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref40" name="_ftn40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[40]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Bushman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rough Stone Rolling, </i>50-51.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn41" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref41" name="_ftn41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[41]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Cross, <i>Burned-over
District</i>, 81.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn42" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref42" name="_ftn42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[42]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Bushman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rough Stone Rolling</i>, 48-49.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn43" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref43" name="_ftn43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[43]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Brodie,
<i>No Man KnowsMy History</i>, 27.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn44" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref44" name="_ftn44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[44]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Bushman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rough Stone Rolling</i>, 42.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn45" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref45" name="_ftn45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[45]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Lucy
Smith, <i>History</i>, 79.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn46" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref46" name="_ftn46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[46]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
65 & 85.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn47" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref47" name="_ftn47" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn47;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[47]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
86.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn48" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref48" name="_ftn48" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn48;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[48]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
86-89.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn49" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref49" name="_ftn49" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn49;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[49]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “Journal entry: August 23, 1842,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Papers of Joseph Smith, </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">vol.
II, 440.</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn50" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref50" name="_ftn50" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn50;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[50]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
87.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn51" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref51" name="_ftn51" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn51;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[51]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Bushman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rough Stone Rolling</i>, 55.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn52" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref52" name="_ftn52" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn52;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[52]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Teachings of the Presidents
of the Church: Joseph Smith</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> (Salt
Lake City, Utah: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2007), 11-12.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn53" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref53" name="_ftn53" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn53;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[53]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “1839 History,” T<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">he Papers of
Joseph Smith</i>, vol. I, 282.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn54" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref54" name="_ftn54" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn54;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[54]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “The Prophet’s Denunciation of Thieves,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</i>,
vol. 4, page 461.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn55" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref55" name="_ftn55" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn55;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[55]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> 1 Nephi
13: 37, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of Mormon: An Account
Written by the hand of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">, trans. Joseph Smith Jr.</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">(Palmyra,
New York: E.B. Grandin, 1830; reprinted, Salt Lake City, Utah: The Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1979), 26.</span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn56" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref56" name="_ftn56" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn56;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[56]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> 1 Nephi
22: 14 & 19, <i>The Book of Mormon</i>,<i> </i>52.<i> </i><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn57" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref57" name="_ftn57" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn57;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[57]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> 2 Nephi
26: 31 & 2 Nephi 28: 24, <i>The Book of Mormon</i>,<i> </i>103 & 109.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn58" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref58" name="_ftn58" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn58;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[58]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Alma 4:
8, <i>The Book of Mormon</i>, 216.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn59" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref59" name="_ftn59" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn59;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[59]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Mormon
6: 17-18, <i>The Book of Mormon,</i> 479.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn60" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref60" name="_ftn60" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn60;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[60]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> 1 John
2: 15, (KJV).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn61" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref61" name="_ftn61" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn61;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[61]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> 2 Nephi
24:32, <i>The Book of Mormon, </i>96.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn62" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref62" name="_ftn62" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn62;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[62]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Bushman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rough Stone Rolling, </i>109-111<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">.</i> In his biography of Joseph Smith,
Bushman alludes to the fact that Joseph Smith never intended to create a
church.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Smith’s mind, the translation
of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Book of Mormon</i> was the full
extent of his prophetic role as he saw it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn63" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref63" name="_ftn63" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn63;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[63]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <i>Doctrine
& Covenants</i> 14: 6, 25.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn64" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref64" name="_ftn64" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn64;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[64]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
21: 1, 2 & 7, 40.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn65" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref65" name="_ftn65" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn65;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[65]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Bushman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rough Stone Rolling, </i>165.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn66" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref66" name="_ftn66" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn66;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[66]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Cross, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Burned-over District, </i>145.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn67" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref67" name="_ftn67" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn67;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[67]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <i>Doctrine
& Covenants</i> 38: 32, 65.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn68" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref68" name="_ftn68" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn68;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[68]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Douglas
Hurt, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the
Old Northwest, 1720-1830 </i>(Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press,
1996), 20-23.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn69" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref69" name="_ftn69" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn69;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[69]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> John
Whitmer, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">From Historian to Dissident: The
Book of John Whitmer</i>, ed. Bruce N. Westergren, (Salt Lake City, Utah:
Signature Books, 1995), 183. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn70" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref70" name="_ftn70" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn70;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[70]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Bushman, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rough Stone Rolling</i>,
330-332.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bushman gives a detailed
analysis of how the Kirtland Safety Society Bank was initially established, and
why it ultimately failed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bushman also
explains the fact that Joseph Smith was never issued a bank charter from the
Ohio legislature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Essentially, the bank
was illegally issuing stock.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn71" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref71" name="_ftn71" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn71;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[71]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “1839 History,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Papers of
Joseph Smith</i>, vol. 2, 218.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn72" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref72" name="_ftn72" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn72;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[72]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> William
E. McLellin, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The William E. McLellin
Papers, 1854-1880</i>, ed. Stan Larson and Samuel Passey (Salt Lake City, Utah:
Signature Books, 2007), 513-514. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn73" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref73" name="_ftn73" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn73;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[73]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Wilford
Woodruff, April 9, 1837, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wilford
Woodruff’s Journal</i>: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">December 29
1833-December 31, 1840</i>, ed. Scott G. Kenney (Midvale, Utah: Signature
Books, 1983), 140.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn74" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref74" name="_ftn74" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn74;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[74]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> George
A. Smith, “Historical Discourse,” from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Journal of Discourses by President Brigham Young, His Two Counselors, and The
Twelve Apostles, </i>vol. 13 (Liverpool, England: Horace S. Eldredge, 1871),
11.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn75" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref75" name="_ftn75" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn75;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[75]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> McLellin,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The William E. McLellin Papers</i>, 454.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn76" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref76" name="_ftn76" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn76;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[76]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
76.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn77" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref77" name="_ftn77" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn77;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[77]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <i>Doctrine
& Covenants</i> 57: 2-3.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn78" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref78" name="_ftn78" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn78;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[78]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
57: 4-8<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn79" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref79" name="_ftn79" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn79;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[79]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., “1839 History,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Papers of
Joseph Smith</i>, vol. I, 437. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn80" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref80" name="_ftn80" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn80;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[80]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <i>Doctrine
& Covenants</i> 64: 42, 121-122.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn81" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref81" name="_ftn81" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn81;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[81]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ed M.
Rowe, “<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">O Saints of Zion”</span> <i>Hymns
of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</i> (1878; reprint, Salt
Lake City, Utah: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1985) #39.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn82" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref82" name="_ftn82" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn82;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[82]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">History of the Church</i>,
vol. 1, 380-382.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn83" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref83" name="_ftn83" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn83;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[83]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
364.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn84" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref84" name="_ftn84" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn84;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[84]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Mathew
19:21, (KJV).<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn85" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref85" name="_ftn85" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn85;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[85]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> William
Clayton, <i>An Intimate Chronicle: The Journals of William Clayton</i>, ed.
George D. Smith (Salt Lake City, Utah: Signature Books, 1995), 531.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn86" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref86" name="_ftn86" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn86;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[86]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr. to Jared Carter, <i>History of the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints</i>, vol 1, 339.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn87" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref87" name="_ftn87" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn87;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[87]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> George
A. Smith, “Written Sermons and Extempore Preaching,” Nov 20, 1870, from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Journal of Discourses by President
Brigham Young, His Two Counselors, and The Twelve Apostles, </i>vol. 13
(Liverpool, England: Horace S. Eldredge, 1871), 299. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn88" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref88" name="_ftn88" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn88;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[88]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
University of Virginia Historical Census Browser, 1830 & 1840 Federal
Census, http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/, [accessed
April 4, 2008].<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn89" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref89" name="_ftn89" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn89;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[89]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">History of the Church</i>,
vol. 2, 338-439.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn90" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref90" name="_ftn90" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn90;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[90]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Brodie,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">No Man Knows My History, </i>173.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn91" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref91" name="_ftn91" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn91;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[91]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid,
364-365.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn92" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref92" name="_ftn92" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn92;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[92]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Hyrum
Smith, “The Testimony of Hyrum Smith,” from <i>History of the Church</i>,
vol.3, 422.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn93" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref93" name="_ftn93" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn93;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[93]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Lilburn
Boggs to General Lucas, October 27,1838, from <i>History of the Church</i>,
vol. 3, 192.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn94" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref94" name="_ftn94" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn94;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[94]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith to Hyrum Smith, December 5, 1839, from <i>History of the Church</i>,
vol.4, 40.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn95" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref95" name="_ftn95" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn95;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[95]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <i>Doctrine
& Covenants</i> 78: 6, 147.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn96" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref96" name="_ftn96" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn96;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[96]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <i>Doctrine
& Covenants</i> 97: 19, 108.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn97" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref97" name="_ftn97" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn97;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[97]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <i>Doctrine
& Covenants</i> 97: 21, 108.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn98" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref98" name="_ftn98" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn98;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[98]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <i>Doctrine
& Covenants </i>109: 8 and 132: 16-19.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn99" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref99" name="_ftn99" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn99;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[99]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Joseph
Smith, Jr, “Prophet’s Remarks to the Twelve,” from <i>History of the Church</i>,
vol. 2., 309.<o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn100" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="file:///C:/Users/bradh/OneDrive/Desktop/Ph.D.%20Papers/Personal%20Writings/Masters%20Papers/The%20Pure%20In%20Heart%20Final%20Draft.doc#_ftnref100" name="_ftn100" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn100;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[100]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>
Brodie, <i>No Man Knows My History</i>, ix. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
</div>Brad Harthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17669677047039491864noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-89950419708524355222023-05-06T19:15:00.001-06:002023-05-06T19:21:54.736-06:00‘King Charles III: So help me God’<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><div><span style="font-size: x-large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrvPklYwZvDVapaplpmf2oR0BzbWVzTLctH1nfHF7YR31tfV93rJzF-UushOMZhfUFjY-4Gr76hNAD-7wiB-b1duEfqCbyaHwkg6qt_5nHsmrpsILVGhuxA5GxLpYytvFE6qBb0ItIF4CPIB1YlNgDfPvj6b-aDlSBNVYDM4YKnq6Zzg87nNEh_0acmw/s1633/bbc%20king%20charles.jpeg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1255" data-original-width="1633" height="308" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrvPklYwZvDVapaplpmf2oR0BzbWVzTLctH1nfHF7YR31tfV93rJzF-UushOMZhfUFjY-4Gr76hNAD-7wiB-b1duEfqCbyaHwkg6qt_5nHsmrpsILVGhuxA5GxLpYytvFE6qBb0ItIF4CPIB1YlNgDfPvj6b-aDlSBNVYDM4YKnq6Zzg87nNEh_0acmw/w400-h308/bbc%20king%20charles.jpeg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: xx-small;"><i>BBC</i></span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />The coronation of the United Kingdom’s monarch took place today—you may have heard—and this edition of <i>American Creation</i> concerns King Charles III’s oath, which concludes with the words “So help me God” and a kiss of the Bible.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-large;">I have written more than once on the likelihood that George Washington added those four words to his first presidential oath of office in New York on April 30, 1789. My contention, which can be read <a href="http://themagpiemason.blogspot.com/2009/04/so-help-me-god.html" target="_blank">here</a>, basically is that Washington spoke those words because they were traditionally found in oaths, even if they are not in the text of the presidential oath as given in the U.S. Constitution. To bolster the convincing circumstantial evidence I cited, which includes several early Masonic oaths, I now share the king’s oath which has roots in medieval times.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-large;"><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgl6YvlLjTrfS4DNTEo--yR0hBB7em3nF8T9zi5_5-HIaTLIJx00_OpClWYGnPGWQ8SwIsukOpalLmMFYa_PwP5hbcbVk63l_9xIC8W69mkOlpfJkcJ_DAwM5eLRHfwcDzT2ZkmUXiLKqqlYAEBjfZIZrbCBiBVJZhgYF_XOdnPqryB80pmZ2LjATp9eg/s2239/46C47693-3DB9-4484-9688-6FB18F2C2D4F_1_201_a.jpeg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1305" data-original-width="2239" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgl6YvlLjTrfS4DNTEo--yR0hBB7em3nF8T9zi5_5-HIaTLIJx00_OpClWYGnPGWQ8SwIsukOpalLmMFYa_PwP5hbcbVk63l_9xIC8W69mkOlpfJkcJ_DAwM5eLRHfwcDzT2ZkmUXiLKqqlYAEBjfZIZrbCBiBVJZhgYF_XOdnPqryB80pmZ2LjATp9eg/w400-h235/46C47693-3DB9-4484-9688-6FB18F2C2D4F_1_201_a.jpeg" width="400" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: right;"><span style="font-family: helvetica; font-size: xx-small;"><i>BBC</i></span></td></tr></tbody></table><br />“All this I promise to do. The things which I here before promised, I will perform and keep. So help me God.” He then kissed the Holy Bible.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-large;">That’s it. That’s the whole post.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: x-large;"> </span></div>Magpie Masonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01390264410632162085noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-53604114662744577222023-04-21T08:15:00.004-06:002023-04-21T11:22:00.226-06:00The American and French Revolutions: Locke, Calvin and Hobbes<p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white;">A short time ago I briefly engaged an author who wrote a book on Christianity and the American Founding that purported to "defend" America in a "trial" sense of the term. I only engaged him on one point. It was about Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau and their respective understandings of "the state of nature." We didn't even get to Rousseau, rather it was just the relationship between Hobbes and Locke. <br /><br />I kept the conversation brief because I didn't feel like going down the Straussian rabbit hole with him (other people are doing that with him). And he was just trying to "shoo away" a fly. He said something to me like (me paraphrasing from memory, not necessarily an exact quote) "Locke's state of nature had nothing to do with Hobbes'." Yes, the A has nothing to do with B is an effective arguing technique. But in his case, it's simply not true. The concept of "the state of nature" itself, regardless of whether Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau's all differ on it, connects them to one another. This was the "low but solid" modern ground on which the three of them argued and differed and on which modern liberal democracies were built. As of course, Leo Strauss observed. <br /><br />I have noticed a tendency among social and religious conservatives who wish to defend America's Founding as "Christian" to overly attempt to distinguish America's Revolution and Founding from the French Revolution. Yes, the two events differed in meaningful ways. But also yes, the two events were connected at a deep level. They were viewed by America's founders as "sister events," at least at the very beginning before things started to go terribly wrong in France. France after all was key in securing America's victory from Great Britain. <br /><br />John Locke greatly influenced America's Founding. But, there were other influences as well. John Locke and the America's Revolution influenced the French Revolution. But there were other influences as well. Influences that didn't take hold in America (Rousseau). <br /><br />But let's turn our focus onto Locke, because he influenced BOTH the American AND French Revolutions. As noted above there is an "inside baseball" debate about how much Locke was "esoterically" influenced by Hobbes. We all agree that </span><span style="background-color: white;">America followed Locke and its Founders had nothing positive to say about Hobbes. <br /><br />But this is what I don't get about the conservatives who wish to separate Locke from Hobbes (and Hobbes, by the way, claimed to be a "Christian" too, just as Locke did): </span><span style="background-color: white;">Locke's understanding about human nature (with his Tabula Rasa and "state of nature" teachings) seemed really naïve and Hobbes' much closer to the reality of what it looked like in caveman times when the Alpha males brutally ruled over the tribes. And that's where we humans derive our DNA.</span></span></p><p><span>But here is where America perhaps made better use of Locke than France did. As noted, Locke was not the only influence on America. Locke influenced both the Declaration of Independence AND US Constitution, but significantly influenced the Declaration more. <br /><br />On the US Constitution, <a href="https://lawliberty.org/the-federalist-heart-of-darkness-publius-depravity-madison-hamilton/">James Madison made CLEAR in Federalist 55</a> that "there is a degree of depravity in mankind which requires a certain degree of circumspection and distrust: So there are other qualities in human nature, which justify a certain portion of esteem and confidence."<br /><br style="background-color: white;" /><span style="background-color: white;">Note, even though there was a strong "Calvinist" component (with the other components) to the American Founding, this does NOT, in my opinion, reflect John Calvin's "Totally Depravity" of human nature. But rather a "Partial Depravity." <br /><br />France (and Jefferson would go for this) left this out of the equation and took the Tabula Rasa from Locke. </span></span></p>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-87631876941811172072023-04-02T08:22:00.006-06:002023-04-02T09:55:45.482-06:00The Bogus Patrick Henry Quotation <p><span style="font-family: inherit;">First off, I'd like to thank "<a href="http://rationalrant.blogspot.com/">Rational Rant</a>" for alerting me to this. I've long known that the below mentioned Patrick Henry quotation is fake; but only recently figured out the origin.</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-family: inherit; white-space: pre-wrap;">I know that in the past I may have been overly harshly critical of folks making "Christian nation" claims. I'm consciously trying to tone done my rhetoric and be more civil because I don't like how divided the country is and "Christian nationalism" is part of that division.</span></p><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">With that, Patrick Henry has been purported to say:</span></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><blockquote>“It cannot be emphasized too strongly or too often that this great nation was founded, not by religionists <a style="color: #385898; cursor: pointer;" tabindex="-1"></a>but by Christians, not on religions but on the gospel of Jesus Christ.”</blockquote></span></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Now, first, there's no evidence Henry said such a thing. Second, there's good reason to believe Henry during the time of the purported quotation would NEVER have said such a thing. (He didn't think the US was a "great nation" to begin with, as opposed to a confederation of independent states.)</span></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">And third, we don't just have absence of evidence, we know who said it and it wasn't Henry. The words come from the author of a <a href="https://www.unz.com/print/AmMercury-1956nov-00130/?fbclid=IwAR1N9CwDsMUSeI8TBFMk99cpzQGYbT3PuRTnnPezJRNTvO7gATLfaBMgKIc">1956 linked article</a>. There is a real quotation from Henry's Will that demonstrates his fervent Christianity.</span></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Some sloppy "historian" along the way quoted the author of the article, as Patrick Henry's exact words. Henry's words are there, from his Will. They quoted the wrong words. </span></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">David Barton has called these and other quotations "unconfirmed." But they are bogus. Or at least this one is.</span></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">There is a President of a college whom I often disagree with, but whom I consider to be a reputable scholar of the history of theology. <a href="http://americancreation.blogspot.com/2022/09/lillbacks-repeats-phony-quotation.html">And in 2022, he spread this fake Patrick Henry quote</a>.</span></div></div>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-5551981242332736702023-03-21T08:22:00.014-06:002023-03-21T10:57:12.339-06:00Denominational Affiliation Tells Us Little<p>I recently was <a href="https://www.facebook.com/koty.arnold.1/posts/6736239903069753">involved in a discussion</a> where, alas, the name of David Barton came up. At this point, I think Barton is a distraction from the issues that interest us on religion and the American Founding. I prefer not to talk about him but move on to better things. If he writes another baboon like "The Jefferson Lies," I will cover it. But otherwise I'm no longer interested.</p><p>But I do want to note something I think important. Gregg Frazer wrote a critique of Barton's "America's Godly Heritage" found <a href="https://www.wthrockmorton.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Americas-Godly-Heritage-review-by-Gregg-Frazer.pdf">here</a>. Let me quote from it:<br /></p><blockquote>Let us begin with <b>monumental unsupported assumptions presented as fact</b>. The video begins with the claim that 52 of the 55 delegates at the Constitutional Convention were “orthodox, evangelical Christians.” Barton does not supply any source or basis for this astounding claim, but I strongly suspect that the source is M.E. Bradford’s A Worthy Company. It is, to my knowledge, the only “study” that attempts such a determination and that produces 52 as a result. The extent of Bradford’s evidence is simply a list of the denominational affiliations of the 55 delegates. Mere affiliation with a denomination is, of course, no evidence whatever of “orthodox, evangelical” Christianity. This is particularly true since, in order to get to 52, one must include the two Roman Catholics. If mere denominational affiliation is proof of orthodox Christianity, one must also wonder why Barton is concerned today, since 86% of today’s Congress is affiliated with Protestant or Catholic denominations (compared with just 75% of the national population). Today’s Congress is apparently more “Christian” than the American public.</blockquote><p>Frazer's point speaks for itself; but <a href="https://archive.org/details/worthycompanybri0000brad">let's also note who the three supposed "deists" were</a>: James Wilson, Ben Franklin, and Hugh Williamson. Now, none of these three "fit" the definition of "deist" that most scholars posit. Though, all three perhaps were heterodox "Christian-Deists"/unitarians/theistic rationalists of some sort. <a href="https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1079&context=hist_fac">Mark David Hall convincingly argues</a> Wilson's views were in accord with orthodox Christianity (but personally I don't see the smoking gun evidence that Wilson was an orthodox Christian).<br /><br />But the larger point I wish to make is Bradford's notion is largely worthless. Denominational affiliation proves very little. Thomas Jefferson who rejected every single doctrine of Christian orthodoxy was not only affiliated with the Anglicans-Episcopalians, but was at one point a vestryman in said church. Moreover, all 55 of the delegates arguably could be proven to have such affiliations. <br /><br />Look, this is an intense debate subject to the most rigorous of scrutiny. And "both sides" equally share a burden of coming forth with smoking gun evidence to demonstrate their contentions. We've put "the key Founders" under the microscope and have found evidence of the heterodoxy of Jefferson, J. Adams and Franklin. And also good reason to believe Madison, Washington and Hamilton (before his end of life conversion) were not orthodox Trinitarians either. Further, we've found evidence of orthodoxy for such figures as Sherman, Jay, and many others.<br /><br />But, there are plenty of lesser figures whom we simply haven't looked at in such intense detail. And it's wrong to assume one way or the other that they were orthodox Christians or some kind of unorthodox deists. Again denominational connection proves very little. Take for instance, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Clymer">George Clymer (who died in my zip code, lol)</a>. <br /><br />Admittedly, I haven't studied the man in much detail. But this is taken <a href="https://www.god-and-country.info/GClymer.html?fbclid=IwAR3TR9fdCSB7i6OHwVtV-p-76CO54HMgQcz8eT61VblvpD5EQGxwYx7hxEA">from a site</a> that seems sympathetic to the "Christian America" perspective. Let me quote it (and note, I haven't verified these details):<br /></p><h3><u></u></h3><blockquote><h3><u>Religious Affiliation:</u> Quaker, Episcopalian ?</h3><p></p><h3><u>Summary of Religious Views:</u></h3><blockquote>Clymer's father was Anglican. His mother had been raised as a Quaker, but she was rejected from that faith for marrying a non-Quaker. Because both his parents died when he was very young, Clymer was raised by Quaker relatives, but it appears that he did not become a Quaker himself, since his wife was disowned by the Quakers for marrying him. In general, religion seems not to have played much of a role in Clymer's adult life. At his request, Clymer's body was interred in a Quaker burial ground.</blockquote></blockquote><p>This doesn't sound like much of an "orthodox evangelical Christian" to me. But we do see the nominal connection to the Quakers and Anglicans. </p>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-13972850445410469942023-02-20T07:22:00.000-07:002023-02-20T07:22:34.502-07:00A President Who Broke with Tradition<p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal">On January 21, 2021, the day after President
Biden took his oath of office a newly published author, <a href="https://www.lindsaychervinsky.com/book">Lindsay Chervinsky</a>, posted an
article with the title, <a href="https://lmchervinsky.medium.com/most-republican-lawmakers-have-failed-john-quincy-adams-and-the-constitution-99c7bab322f5">Most
Republican Lawmakers Have Failed John Quincy Adams – and The Constitution</a>.
Overall, it’s worth looking at. There is, however, a problem in the second
paragraph where it states:<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><span style="background: white; color: #292929; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">In March 1825, President-Elect John Quincy Adams broke with tradition
and <a href="http://americancreation.blogspot.com/2021/03/john-quincy-adams-used-law-book-in-1825.html">used
a book of laws</a> at his inauguration. He selected the book of laws, rather
than a bible, so that he would be taking the oath of office on the Constitution
of the United States. JQA’s model serves as a helpful reminder of how elected
officials <em><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">should</span></em> act,
and reminds us how far most Republican lawmakers have strayed from that high
standard.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #292929; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">The problem with saying “John Quincy
Adams broke with tradition” is that it’s not true. John Quincy Adams did not
break with tradition when he “<a href="https://guides.loc.gov/presidential-inaugurations/1789-1825#:~:text=First%20Inauguration%20%2D%20March%204%2C%201825&text=John%20Quincy%20Adams%20was%20the,from%20a%20volume%20of%20laws.">read
the oath of office from of a Volume of Laws</a>.” In doing so, he actually
chose to follow the model set by George Washington’s second inauguration that
took place in Philadelphia. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #292929; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">The precedent setting nature of
Washington’s second inauguration is evident by thoroughly examining the <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/05-12-02-0183">March
1, 1793 - <span style="letter-spacing: 0pt;">Cabinet Opinion on the
Administration of the Presidential Oath</span></a>, where there’s no mention of
a Bible. In addition, the <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_American_Historical_Register_and_Mon/swU7AQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=judge+cushing+the+read+the+oath&pg=PA55&printsec=frontcover">Philadelphia
newspapers</a> describing Washington’s second inauguration failed to mention a
Bible, or offer any commentary on how federal Justice Cushing administered the
presidential oath of office by selecting a text from which he <a href="https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_American_Historical_Register_and_Mon/swU7AQAAIAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22judge%20cushing%20then%20read%20the%20oath%22">read
the presidential oath</a> “rather
than a bible.”<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background: white; color: #292929; letter-spacing: -0.05pt;">The fact is that all reliable firsthand
accounts, describing presidential inaugurations from George Washington’s second
inauguration through to the 1825 inauguration of John Quincy Adams, fail to
mention a Bible. The so-called “JQA’s
model” was not established by John Quincy Adams. That distinction belongs to
George Washington starting at his second inauguration.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal">It’s only after Washington’s second
inauguration and the next eight presidential inaugural ceremonies, a span of 36
years, where we find a president who broke with Washington’s no-Bible
tradition. This break occurred at Andrew Jackson’s inauguration of March 4,
1829, where a District of Columbia Marshal appeared on the scene, and presented
Andrew Jackson with a Bible. Here’s a snippet from a <a href="https://uschs.wordpress.com/2013/01/14/the-first-inauguration-at-the-capitols-east-front-andrew-jackson-1829/">letter,
dated March 11, 1829, written by Margaret Bayard Smith</a> that describes the
scene:<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><i><span style="background: white; color: #555555;">An almost
breathless silence, succeeded </span></i><span style="background: white; color: #555555;">[as Jackson
started his speech] <i>and the multitude was still, — listening to catch the
sound of his voice, tho’ it was so low, as to be heard only by those nearest to
him. After reading his speech, the oath was administered to him by </i>[<a href="https://supremecourthistory.org/history-of-the-courts/the-marshall-court-1801-1835/">John
Marshall</a>]<i> the Chief Justice. The Marshal presented the Bible. The
President took it from his hands, pressed his lips to it, laid it reverently
down, then bowed again to the people —Yes, to the people in all their majesty.
. . .”
</i></span><o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">
</p><p class="MsoNormal">So, when we examine contemporary reports
covering the time of our early presidents, it’s Andrew Jackson, not John Quincy
Adams, who broke with the tradition of not using a Bible when swearing the
presidential oath.<span style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p></p>Ray Sollerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07950061062767093373noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-90761455351084644992023-02-03T12:47:00.005-07:002023-02-03T12:51:56.896-07:00Rubin on George Washington's Approach To the "Christian Nation" Question<p><a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2022/12/21/hanukkah-george-washington-jews-antisemitism/">Writing at the Washington Post</a>, Jennifer Rubin has an article entitled, "Think America Is A ‘Christian Nation’? George Washington Didn’t." <br /><br />I saw this from <a href="https://taxprof.typepad.com/taxprof_blog/2023/01/wapo-op-ed-think-america-is-a-christian-nation-george-washington-didnt.html?fbclid=IwAR2d8kIGBnGnBosGl9aQKF3ma6nyh9Rbh68hJCPOMTyUG1zb4lUVNKwj2zM">Dean Paul Caron's site</a>. Quoting Rubin from Caron's site: <br /></p><p style="border: 0px none; color: #363636; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px; margin: 15px 0px; outline: none 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"></span></p><blockquote><p style="border: 0px none; color: #363636; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px; margin: 15px 0px; outline: none 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">The Jewish community in the United States is as old as its democracy. In August 1790, George Washington sent a letter to the Hebrew Congregation in Newport, R.I., thanking them for their well wishes.</span></p><p style="border: 0px none; color: #363636; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px; margin: 15px 0px; outline: none 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">He wrote: “The Citizens of the United States of America have a right to applaud themselves for having given to mankind examples of an enlarged and liberal policy — a policy worthy of imitation. All possess alike liberty of conscience and immunities of citizenship.” He added, “It is now no more that toleration is spoken of as if it were the indulgence of one class of people that another enjoyed the exercise of their inherent natural rights, for, happily, the Government of the United States, which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance, requires only that they who live under its protection should demean themselves as good citizens in giving it on all occasions their effectual support.”</span></p><p style="border: 0px none; color: #363636; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px; margin: 15px 0px; outline: none 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">To a people long denied citizenship in the Old World, kept as a people apart from Christian neighbors, Washington was explaining something quite revolutionary: The United States does not simply forbear Jews; Jews are part of the United States. As the Touro Synagogue in Newport explains on its website: “The letter reassured those who had fled religious tyranny that life in the new nation would be different, that religious ‘toleration’ would give way to religious liberty, and that the government would not interfere with individuals in matters of conscience and belief.” ...</span></p><p style="border: 0px none; color: #363636; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px; margin: 15px 0px; outline: none 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">Those who view the United States as a “White Christian nation” would do well to ponder Washington’s letter. Its closing passage, which speaks in terms familiar to the people of the Torah, stands as an eloquent rebuke to that notion: “May the children of the stock of Abraham who dwell in this land continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other inhabitants — while every one shall sit in safety under his own vine and fig tree and there shall be none to make him afraid.”</span></p><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;"><a id="more" style="color: #0078b0; transition: color 0.3s ease-out 0s;"></a><span style="color: #222222;"></span></span></p><p style="border: 0px none; color: #363636; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 20px; margin: 15px 0px; outline: none 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit;">The Founding Fathers are often criticized (or excused) on matters of race and gender as men trapped in the blinkered vision of the past. But in this case, the most esteemed American of his time plainly saw beyond the common prejudices of his era. For that reason, he earned a special place in the hearts of American Jews. ... We Jews will remain part of the American experience so long as Americans of whatever faith or no faith heed Washington’s admonition.</span></p></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: inherit;">Let me add, that s</span><span style="background-color: white; color: #050505; font-family: inherit; white-space: pre-wrap;">ome may claim, okay let's use "Judeo-Christian" instead of "Christian." But I have evidence that Washington viewed Islam as a legitimate monotheistic, non-Christian religion along with Judaism. </span></p><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">One thing is for sure, George Washington was "pro-religion" in a general sense. And he meant some kind of generic monotheism that transcended Christianity or even Judaism and Christianity. </span></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">(Washington himself was nominally Anglican and believed in a warm <a style="color: #385898; cursor: pointer;" tabindex="-1"></a>Providence. Plenty of terms have been used attempting to capture his personal creed, which seems a bit mysterious. But "warm deist," "Christian-Deist," and even more modern terms like "morally therapeutic deist" and "theistic rationalist" all seem applicable.)</span></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">To Washington, when he lauded "religion," he did not necessarily mean someone's "pet" version of "Christianity," which is the error that many Christian Nationalists make when they quote him.</span></div></div><div class="x11i5rnm xat24cr x1mh8g0r x1vvkbs xtlvy1s x126k92a" style="background-color: white; color: #050505; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; overflow-wrap: break-word; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div dir="auto"><span style="font-family: inherit;">If I were to describe Washington's creed in a way that was unique to him and him only it would be as some kind of noble pagan, a revived modern for the late 18th Century Roman Stoic like Cincinnatus or Cato, <a href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/bare-chested-george-washington">like here</a>. </span></div></div>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-24006252925192218402022-12-16T06:05:00.018-07:002022-12-20T08:53:55.509-07:00Samuel Seabury Leverages The Church of England into Communion With American Episcopalians<p>If it's fair to even call it "communion."</p><p>If we want to understand the political theology of the American founding and its attendant religious liberty and establishment issues, we need to understand the dynamic of how The Church of England (Anglicans) dealt with the separation.<br /><br />The "official rules" of the Church of England held that the Monarch was head of both Church and State. The top clerical official is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who "reports" to the Monarch. If one did not affirm the Monarch's rightful place as leader of the Church, one could face severe legal penalties from both the civil magistrate as well as <a href="https://www.anglican.net/doctrines/1604-canon-law/?fbclid=IwAR061r3UOXq-Tbkq9kaotkZXWYzTTHYdxfzfT3qlAPUeZikEpc_5bA5xJQ8">Church canons</a>, up to and including <a href="https://www.anglican.net/doctrines/1604-canon-law/?fbclid=IwAR061r3UOXq-Tbkq9kaotkZXWYzTTHYdxfzfT3qlAPUeZikEpc_5bA5xJQ8">excommunication</a>. <br /><br /><a href="http://americancreation.blogspot.com/2019/06/american-rebelled-against-high-church.html">I've noted before</a> the irony that so many of America's leading Founding Fathers were Anglicans, and what they technically did was rebel against the head of their Church. If they were "Anglican fundamentalist" (high church types who followed every single rule of the C of E down to the letter), they would have been Tories and submitted to the King, because that's what the Church officially taught. <br /><br />But even in Mother England, high church Anglicanism of the "fundamentalist" variety wasn't the only game in town in the C of E, even if perhaps it prevailed. Even King George III, about whose personal religious convictions I'm not exactly sure, I seriously doubt was an "Anglican fundamentalist" (even though that theology benefited his self interest). I'm assuming "the Christian King" was some kind of orthodox Trinitarian Anglican (?); but the attitude of the Monarchy towards America, up until things got heated with their dispute seemed to be one of (as the late Sen. Daniel Patrick Moynihan put it in an entirely different context) "benign neglect." <br /><br />The variety of Anglicanism that appealed to the Whig Patriots of the American founding was that of "low church <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitudinarian">latitudinarianism</a>." Latitudinarianism literally means "doctrinal latitude." Now, most of these latitudinarians were probably "orthodox" on the Trinity and related doctrines; but not all of them. Or at least, their "doctrinal latitude" made room for more deistic and unitarian minded theists to feel comfortable in the Church.<br /><br />If one wants a name of a latitudinarian figure that America's founders greatly respected, look up <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=latitudinarianism+bishop+hoadly&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj2u_-LlP77AhUCLFkFHZgjBbIQ7xYoAHoECAcQAQ&biw=1536&bih=722&dpr=1.25#ip=1">Bishop Benjamin Hoadly</a>. </p><p>Over in America during the revolution, Bishop William White was concerned that the conflict would fracture the Church. And his concerns were valid. As a matter of technicality, the Church of England only had jurisdiction in England. If America is no longer England, then the Church of England no longer exists there, even if the buildings and believers remain. Many of the believers left. The revolution indeed gutted the C of E in America. </p><p>But when America successfully rebelled, the C of E in America, by necessity had to "start over." The Anglican hierarchy in England no longer had any power or jurisdiction over America. Ultimately what ended up happening was because Bishops White and Samuel Seabury (and other Anglican power players in America) were committed to historic Anglican orthodoxy, what emerged in American Episcopalianism was something traditional and orthodox.<br /><br />It didn't have to be that way though. In New England, one of the Anglican Churches, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Chapel">King's Chapel</a> went unitarian after the split. Indeed, if Bishop James Madison whom many suspected was heterodox, got his druthers and was in charge of rewriting the rules for Southern Anglicans and got his cousin and namesake and Thomas Jefferson to assist, we could have had a Unitarian Episcopalian system there too.</p><p>But what of the issue of "communion" among American and English Anglicans, post revolution? The first American Bishop was Samuel Seabury, a Tory loyalist and <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-01-02-0057">"The Farmer" whom Alexander Hamilton purported to "refute."</a> He was jailed during the revolution for his loyalism. But after America won, he wished to remain and help rebuild the C of E in America, now as The Protestant Episcopal Church. <br /><br />Seabury traveled to Great Britain to get consecrated by the C of E. But he ran into a problem. The then extant rules officially demanded he take an oath of loyalty to the crown. Seabury wisely refused because he knew that wouldn't fly in America. But he got consecrated anyway by the Scottish Episcopal Church, composed of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonjuring_schism">non-juring Bishops</a> who "borrowed" from the Church of England's theology, but without recognizing any of their authority.<br /><br />So at that time, Seabury was America's first and only existing Bishop and was in communion with <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonjuring_schism">a church that was in schism</a> with the Church of England. This turned out to be a wise and strong move on Seabury's part. Great Britain ended up changing its rules to accommodate America's new situation. They apparently did NOT want American Episcopalians to be in communion only with the schismatic <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobitism">Jacobite</a> Church.<br /><br />So they relented and consecrated the next three American Bishops, William White, Samuel Provost and James Madison. In the Church of England. And I'm assuming without the "loyalty to the crown" oaths. </p>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-60564960706618516132022-11-25T12:02:00.004-07:002022-11-25T12:03:16.438-07:00John Adams' FU Letter to Jedidiah Morse<p> This is another <a href="https://americancreation.blogspot.com/2008/07/google-books-john-adams.html?fbclid=IwAR15xVwpUTgVN3WEtR7kTNSwAsv-UdxspxyBAAnDIaNatozB7zA8dnf14pg">post of mine from 2008</a> on John Adams' response to one Jedidiah Morse on the concept of Unitarianism. </p>Adams was a fervent theological unitarian who militantly and bitterly rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1815, he gets a letter from one Jedidiah Morse who attacked unitarianism, which was then growing in popularity.<br /><br />Adams responded with an FU letter featured that you can read in its entirety <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=00AAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA43&dq=I+thank+you+for+your+favour+of+the+10th+and+the+pamphlet+enclosed,+%E2%80%9CAmerican+Unitarianism.%E2%80%9D+I+have+turned+over+its+leaves+and+have+found+nothing+that+was+not+familiarly+known+to+me.&lr=#v=onepage&q=I%20thank%20you%20for%20your%20favour%20of%20the%2010th%20and%20the%20pamphlet%20enclosed%2C%20%E2%80%9CAmerican%20Unitarianism.%E2%80%9D%20I%20have%20turned%20over%20its%20leaves%20and%20have%20found%20nothing%20that%20was%20not%20familiarly%20known%20to%20me.&f=false">here</a>. To his credit, Adams tries to occupy a reasonable middle ground between the Trinitarian Calvinist fundamentalist "orthodoxy" Morse was trying to enforce and the more radical philosophical deism that was in the "air" of that era.<br /><br />When Adams uses the term "Athanasianism," he refers to the traditional Trinitarian orthodoxy of St. Athanasius who defended the Nicaean creed in 325AD against Arius (Adams was on Arius' side). Athanasius also later<b><i> first</i></b> (meaning he literally was the first early church father or figure to do so) articulated the 27 books of the New Testament as an exclusive list in 367 AD (something Adams mistakenly thought was done in Nicaea; and Adams didn't have any kind of confidence in the biblical canon partly because of such).<br /><br />But on to Adams' quotation:<br /><blockquote>... More than fifty years ago, I read Dr. Clarke, Emlyn, and Dr. Waterland: do you expect, my dear doctor, to teach me any thing new in favour of Athanasianism? — There is, my dear Doctor, at present existing in the world a Church Philosophick. as subtle, as learned, as hypocritical, as the Holy Roman Catholick, Apostolick, and Ecumenical Church. The Philosophical Church was originally English. Voltaire learned it from Lord Herbert, Hobbes, Morgan, Collins, Shaftsbury, Bolingbroke, &c. &c. &c. You may depend upon it, your exertions will promote the Church Philosophick, more than the Church Athanasian or Presbyterian. This and the coming age will not be ruled by inquisitions or Jesuits. The restoration of Napoleon has been caused by the resuscitation of inquisitors and Jesuits.<div><br /></div><div>I am and wish to be </div><div>Your friend, </div><div>JOHN ADAMS </div><div>Quincy, May 15th, 1815.</div></blockquote>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-30936400860919622642022-11-04T11:03:00.013-06:002023-01-13T08:54:37.716-07:00Revisiting George Washington and Richard Price<p>I wrote <a href="http://americancreation.blogspot.com/2008/08/george-washington-clergy.html">this in 2008</a>. It's not bad. Though, I think I could have written a stronger piece. The point I take from intensely studying George Washington's personal and political theology is that, aside from certain minimal points on which we all should agree, Washington leaves a bit of mystery because of his silence on the matter.<br /><br />The minimal points are as follows: 1. devout belief in a warm Providence; 2. the importance of "religion" (generally defined) in helping to promote the morality of a virtuous citizenry on which republics depend; and 3. because "Christianity" is a "religion," a general endorsement of "Christianity" without necessarily endorsing orthodox Christianity's narrow claims. <br /><br />I do NOT see Washington as a Trinity and Incarnation believing "orthodox Christian," but rather something else. But I would agree that there are ambiguities in the record (and, to me, they seem purposeful on Washington's part).<br /><br />But it's in trying to "fill in" these gaps -- the "detective work" -- that leads to a temptation: To incorporate the words of other people and institutions and put them in Washington's mouth or at least into his personal convictions. So, Washington was an Anglican; and Anglicanism has spilled a lot of words on what it stands for. Let us then assume that this is what Washington believed. OR, Washington was a collector of sermons; let us then assume he believed in all the content of the sermons he collected. OR, Washington corresponded with various religious figures and organizations of his day and said nice things to them; let us then assume he agreed with them on all of their doctrinal points.<br /><br />All of those assumptions I described above are problematic. <br /><br />As I noted in my above mentioned <a href="http://americancreation.blogspot.com/2008/08/george-washington-clergy.html">2008 post</a>, one of the theologians that was the subject of Washington's brief correspondence was the legendary British Arian Richard Price. Price gave an "address" -- perhaps it could be classified as a "sermon" because Price was among other things, a minister -- entitled "<a href="https://classicliberal.tripod.com/price/amrev04.html">Observations on the Importance of the American Revolution</a>." </p><div>Price was a theologically liberal, rationalistic Arian. I use the terms "liberal" and "rationalistic" because Price actually uses those terms to describe his creed in this address:<br /><p></p><blockquote><p>It is indeed only a rational and liberal religion, a religion founded on just notions of the Deity as a being who regards equally every sincere worshipper, and by whom all are alike favoured as far as they act up to the light they enjoy, a religion which consists in the imitation of the moral perfections of an almighty but benevolent governor of nature, who directs for the best all events, in confidence in the care of his providence, in resignation to his will, and in the faithful discharge of every duty of piety and morality from a regard to his authority and the apprehension of a future righteous retribution. It is only this religion (the inspiring principle of every thing fair and worthy and joyful and which in truth is nothing but the love of God and man and virtue warming the heart and directing the conduct) — it is only this kind of religion that can bless the world or be an advantage to society. This is the religion that every enlightened friend to mankind will be zealous to promote. But it is a religion that the powers of the world know little of and which will always be best promoted by being left free and open.</p><p>I cannot help adding here that such in particular is the Christian religion. ...</p></blockquote><p>Now, Price's personal "Christian" convictions were, as noted above, Arian (the belief that Jesus, the Son of God, is NOT God the Son, but rather a created being who is higher than the highest angel, but not fully God Himself). Though, Price's address doesn't stress the Arianism (as I initially first thought when reading it). <br /><br />Price does say the following: </p><p></p><blockquote><p>Perhaps nothing more shocking to reason and humanity ever made a part of a religious system than the damning clauses in the Athanasian creed and yet the obligation of the clergy to declare assent to this creed, and to read it as a part of the public devotion, remains. </p></blockquote><p>Again, Price was an Arian; the Athanasian Creed was a Trinitarian one that has "clauses" that "damn" people (like Price himself) for not believing in the Trinitarianism expressed there. However, other Trinitarian creeds, most notably the Nicene, were more central. Theologically unitarian Founding Fathers and their influences like Price often did use the term "Athanasian" as a shorthand for "Trinitarianism" (mainly because of St. Athanasius' role in defending the Trinity during the Council of Nicaea). </p><p>But in rereading Price's address, it seems more of an attack on that particular part of the Athanasian creed than promotion of theological unitarianism. Though, Price does describe the "latitudinarian" landscape of the Church of England at his time and how unitarians and other dissenters like himself "fit in" there:</p><blockquote>The Church Establishment in England is one of the mildest and best sort. But even here what a snare has it been to integrity? And what a check to free enquiry? What dispositions favourable to despotism has it fostered? What a turn to pride and narrowness and domination has it given the clerical character? What struggles has it produced in its members to accommodate their opinions to the subscriptions and tests which it imposes? What a perversion of learning has it occasioned to defend obsolete creeds and absurdities? What a burthen is it on the consciences of some of its best clergy who, in consequence of being bound down to a system they do not approve, and having no support except that which they derive from conforming to it, find themselves under the hard necessity of either prevaricating or starving? <b>No one doubts but that the English clergy in general could with more truth declare that they do not, than that they do, given their unfeigned assent to all and everything contained in the Thirty-nine Articles and the Book of Common-Prayer; and yet, with a solemn declaration to this purpose, are they obliged to enter upon an office which above all offices requires those who exercise it to be examples of simplicity and sincerity. Who can help execrating the cause of such an evil?</b></blockquote><p><b>Bold face is mine. </b></p><p>"Latitudinarianism" means "doctrinal latitude." Not all latitudinarians were unitarian; but as I understand the record, some/many were. People part of the Church of England in Richard Price's day -- including ministers -- didn't necessarily buy into everything the Church "officially" taught. <br /><br />Well, what does this have to do with George Washington? </p><p>For one, Washington endorsed Price's address. As he wrote <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/04-02-02-0234">to BENJAMIN VAUGHAN, February 5, 1785</a>:</p><blockquote><p><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;">Sir: I pray you to accept my acknowledgment of your polite letter of the 31st. of October, and thanks for the flattering expressions of it. These are also due in a very particular manner to Doctr. Price, for the honble mention he has made of the American General in his excellent observations on the importance of the American revolution addressed, "To the free and United States of America," which I have seen and read with much pleasure.</span></p><div></div></blockquote><div><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;">Now, I agree it's a bridge too far to treat this like a "smoking gun" that proves Washington agreed with every word of this address. </span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;">But this is generally how Washington corresponded with various religious figures of his day who sent him items for his </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia, Utopia, "Palatino Linotype", Palatino, serif; font-size: 15.4px;">perusal</span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino Linotype, Palatino, serif;"><span style="font-size: 15.4px;">. He gave polite, perfunctory "thank yous" and imprimaturs. But the different individuals and groups who sought his approval, which he most often gave, taught contradictory things on "doctrinal" matters and the like. </span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Georgia, Utopia, Palatino Linotype, Palatino, serif;"><span style="font-size: 15.4px;">So, it's also a mistake to cherry pick from the polite correspondence Washington had with more orthodox theologians and groups and assume that Washington personally shared their beliefs. Likewise, because Washington was affiliated with the Anglican Church, it's a mistake to assume he believed in all of their doctrines. If Washington were an Anglican fundamentalist, he'd be a Tory. And as we've seen above from Price's testimony, plenty of Anglicans, including ministers from that area "dissented" from or otherwise rejected "official" doctrine like that found in the </span></span></span>Thirty-nine Articles and the Book of Common-Prayer.<br /><br />As I look at the "big picture" I see Washington's personal creed as closer to Price's than that of the more traditional orthodox types of his day; however, even there, we have uncertainty. Washington could have been even further from conventional Christianity than Price was. He could have been more Socinian and Deistic (though, as noted above Washington clearly believed in a warm Providence). </div></div>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-2967694521029583702022-10-10T15:04:00.003-06:002022-10-10T15:04:55.062-06:00How Howard Zinn Hijacked History and Christopher Columbus<p> <span style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-size: small; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><b>F</b></span><strong style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: inherit; font-size: small; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-style: inherit;">rom “</span><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Debunking-Howard-Zinn-Exposing-Generation/dp/1621577732/ref=as_sl_pc_qf_sp_asin_til?tag=amerpowe-20&linkCode=w00&linkId=e542639ff400f9cbd0a0139636c751ca&creativeASIN=1621577732" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-style: initial; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; position: relative; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, background-color 0.2s ease 0s, opacity 0.2s ease 0s, border-color 0.2s ease 0s;">Debunking Howard Zinn: </span></span><i style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, background-color 0.2s ease 0s, opacity 0.2s ease 0s, border-color 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">Exposing the Fake History That Turned a Generation against America</i></a><span style="font-style: inherit;">” by </span><a href="https://marygrabar.com/index.php/about-me" rel="nofollow" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, background-color 0.2s ease 0s, opacity 0.2s ease 0s, border-color 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">Mary Grabar</a><span style="font-style: inherit;">. This excerpt originally appeared at </span><a href="https://www.thecollegefix.com/howard-zinn-lied-about-christopher-columbus-heres-how/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><i>The College Fix</i></a><span style="font-style: inherit;"> and is reprinted here by permission of the author.</span></strong></p><p><strong style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /></strong></p><p><strong style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"></strong></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><strong style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://justthenews.com/sites/default/files/styles/hero/public/2020-06/Christopher%20Columbus%20Statue.jpg?h=19194eee&itok=k8J3_0W2" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="504" data-original-width="800" height="405" src="https://justthenews.com/sites/default/files/styles/hero/public/2020-06/Christopher%20Columbus%20Statue.jpg?h=19194eee&itok=k8J3_0W2" width="640" /></a></strong></div><strong style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: inherit; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></strong><p></p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://lawliberty.org/howard-zinn-fake-historian/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Howard Zinn</a> rode to fame and fortune on the “untold story” of Christopher Columbus—a shocking tale of severed hands, raped women, and gentle, enslaved people worked to death to slake the white Europeans’ lust for gold.</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Noto Serif, georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: 1.125rem;">Today, that story is anything but untold. Zinn’s narrative about the genocidal discoverer of America has captured our education system and popular culture. The defacement of statues of Columbus with red paint had already become an annual ritual in many places.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Noto Serif, georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: 18px;">Zinn is the inspiration behind the current campaign to abolish Columbus Day and replace it with “Indigenous Peoples’ Day.” High school teachers cite his book in making the case for the renaming to their local communities. In October 2018, San Francisco, Cincinnati, and Rochester, New York, joined at least sixty other cities in replacing Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples’ Day. Six states also do not recognize the holiday as Columbus Day. Many articles reporting on this trend cited Howard Zinn’s role in the change in attitude.<br /><br /></span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Noto Serif, georgia, serif;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjki7Zkknj5GHkZtJc0gRhQFFkA_NniaP-MEsKzRg_cqY_co5Iova-WEMQcZPlDU9EPTwHLbJOYBShQ8G7TOt7ZI0fQ9HIGHG3hx3nB0RdsaHfH0CC0k0H9ygfJU73YPZ9B8Omw3RKozME/" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="273" data-original-width="185" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjki7Zkknj5GHkZtJc0gRhQFFkA_NniaP-MEsKzRg_cqY_co5Iova-WEMQcZPlDU9EPTwHLbJOYBShQ8G7TOt7ZI0fQ9HIGHG3hx3nB0RdsaHfH0CC0k0H9ygfJU73YPZ9B8Omw3RKozME/" width="163" /></a></span></div><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Noto Serif, georgia, serif;"><br /><br /></span><p></p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Stanford anthropology Professor Carol Delaney, who was quoted in a <a href="https://www.courthousenews.com/sf-replaces-columbus-day-with-indigenous-peoples-day/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank"><span style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: oblique; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Courthouse News Service</span> article</a> to provide a counter-narrative, informed reporters that Columbus acted on his Christian faith and instructed his crew to treat the native people with kindness. But such inconvenient facts are inevitably drowned out by the Columbus-hate that Howard Zinn has succeeded in spreading.</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Presumably extrapolating from the “many volumes” he had read, Zinn found the inspiration for the dramatic opening sentences of “<a href="https://www.historyisaweapon.com/zinnapeopleshistory.html" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">A People’s History of the United States</a>” [presented in full at the link by the aptly-named historyisaweapon.com—<i>Ed</i>.]:</p><blockquote style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 5px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.0625em; font-stretch: normal; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 1.2em; padding: 0px 0px 0px 25px; position: relative; quotes: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><p style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">“Arawak men and women, naked, tawny, and full of wonder, emerged from their villages onto the island’s beaches and swam out to get a closer look at the strange big boat. When Columbus and his sailors came ashore, carrying swords, speaking oddly, the Arawaks ran to greet them, brought them food, water, gifts. He later wrote of this in his log: ‘They . . . brought us parrots and balls of cotton, and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks’ bells. They willingly traded everything they owned. . . . ’”</p></blockquote><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">The quoted passage from Columbus’s log continues with Columbus’s description of the Arawaks. They are “well-built” and handsomely featured. Having never seen iron, they accidentally cut themselves on the Europeans’ swords when they touch them. The passage ends with Columbus’s now infamous words: “They have no iron. Their spears are made out of cane. . . . They would make fine servants. . . . With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.”</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">The ellipses in this passage are Zinn’s, not mine. Those omissions are essential to Zinn’s dishonest retelling of the Columbus story. By leaving crucial words out of the quotation, Zinn makes Columbus say something very different from what he actually said.</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">It’s unlikely that he even read as much of “Columbus’s journals” or the works of “Las Casas, the great eyewitness” as he claimed. The truth is that Zinn’s description of Columbus’s first encounter with the American Indians is lifted from “Columbus: His Enterprise: Exploding the Myth,” a book for high school students that Zinn’s friend and fellow anti-Vietnam War activist, Hans Koning, first published in 1976.</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Zinn perpetuates Koning’s smears. In Koning’s telling and in Zinn’s, Columbus set out to enslave a uniformly gentle people for the sole purpose of enriching himself with gold. In fact, that is far from the truth. European efforts to find a sea route to Asia had been going on for hundreds of years. As William and Carla Phillips point out in “The Worlds of Christopher Columbus,” Columbus’s voyages of discovery were a continuation of Europeans’ ventures of sailing to Asia—at first, around Africa—that had begun in 1291. For centuries before Columbus, Portuguese and Spanish explorers had also ventured farther and farther out into the Atlantic Ocean.</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Thus, Columbus’s mission was multi-faceted and inspired by several different motivations: “to reach the East Indies, so as to take Islam in the rear, and to effect an alliance with the Great Khan—a mythical personage who was believed to be the sovereign of all that region, and favorable to the Christian religion—and finally . . . to diffuse Christianity throughout that unknown continent and trade with the traditional sources of gold and spices.”</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Desires to find new lands for more resources and to escape enemies and persecution are not impulses unique to Europeans. The natives of North America “in prehistoric times” themselves came from Asia and “crossed the land bridge across the Bering Strait to the lands of the Western Hemisphere.”</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">When he encountered naked natives instead of the Asian merchants he was expecting, Columbus did not jump to thoughts of working them to death for gold as Zinn, following Koning, suggests. For example, in his log entry for October 12, 1492, Columbus wrote, “I warned my men to take nothing from the people without giving something in exchange”—a passage left out by both Koning and Zinn.</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">But Zinn’s most crucial omissions are in the passage from Columbus’s log that he quotes in the very first paragraph of his People’s History. There he uses ellipses to cover up the fact that he has left out enough of Columbus’s words to deceive his readers about what the discoverer of America actually meant. The omission right before “They would make fine servants” is particularly dishonest. Here’s the nub of what Zinn left out: “I saw some who bore marks of wounds on their bodies, and I made signs to them to ask how this came about, and they indicated to me that people came from other islands, which are near, and wished to capture them, and they defended themselves. And I believed and still believe that they come here from the mainland to take them for slaves.”</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">In his translation of Columbus’s log, Robert Fuson discusses the context that Zinn deliberately left out:</p><blockquote style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(221, 221, 221); border-left-style: solid; border-right-color: initial; border-right-style: initial; border-top-color: initial; border-top-style: initial; border-width: 0px 0px 0px 5px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #444444; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.0625em; font-stretch: normal; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 1.2em; padding: 0px 0px 0px 25px; position: relative; quotes: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><p style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">“The cultural unity of the Taino [the name for this particular tribe, which Zinn labels “Arawaks”] greatly impressed Columbus…. Those who see Columbus as the founder of slavery in the New World are grossly in error. This thought occurred to [Samuel Eliot] Morison (and many others), who misinterpreted a statement made by Columbus on the first day in America, when he said, ‘They (the Indians) ought to be good servants.’ In fact, Columbus offered this observation in explanation of an earlier comment he had made, theorizing that people from the mainland came to the islands to capture these Indians as slaves because they were so docile and obliging.”</p></blockquote><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Zinn’s next ellipsis between “They would make fine servants” and “With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want” covers for Zinn’s dishonest pretense that the second statement has anything at all to do with the first. The sentences that Zinn joins here are not only not in the same paragraph—as he dishonestly pretends by printing them that way on the very first page of A People’s History— but they’re not even in the same entry of Columbus’s log. In fact, they’re from two days apart.</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Zinn’s highly selective quotations from Columbus’s log are designed to give the impression that Columbus had no concern for the Indians’ spiritual or physical well-being—that the explorer was motivated only by a “frenzy for money.”</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">But literally the explorer’s first concern—the hope that he expressed in the initial comment about the natives in his log—was for the Indians’ freedom and their eternal salvation: “I want the natives to develop a friendly attitude toward us because I know that they are a people who can be made free and converted to our Holy Faith more by love than by force.”</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Zinn just entirely omits the passage in which Columbus expresses his respect and concern for the Indians. Zinn also suppresses—and, where he doesn’t suppress, downplays— the evidence from even the sympathetic Las Casas that the Indians could be violent and cruel. Zinn has to admit that they were “not completely peaceful, because they do battle from time to time with other tribes.” But, like Koning, he is eager to explain their violent behavior away, arguing, “but their casualties seem small, and they fight when they are individually moved to do so because of some grievance, not on the orders of captains or kings.”</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">In Zinn’s telling, the Arawaks—or black slaves, or Cherokees, or New York Irish, or whoever—must always be persecuted innocents and the condemnation of their sufferings must be absolute. The officially oppressed cannot be blamed even for any crimes they themselves commit, which are inevitably the fault of their oppressors.</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">According to Zinn, there’s no such thing as objective history, anyway: “the historian’s distortion is more than technical, it is ideological; it is released into a world of contending interests, where any chosen emphasis supports (whether the historian means to or not) some kind of interest, whether economic or political or racial or national or sexual.”</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Once ideology has become a moral virtue, Zinn can discount standards of scholarship—such as those of the American Historical Association—as having to do with nothing more important than “technical problems of excellence”—standards of no importance compared to his kind of history, which consists in forging “tools for contending social classes, races, nations.”</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-size: 1.125rem; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">Thus it would seem that the noble political purpose behind Zinn’s history justifies him in omitting facts that are inconvenient for his Columbus-bad-Indians-good narrative.</p><p style="background-color: white; background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: "Noto Serif", georgia, serif; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: 28px; margin: 0px 0px 26px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Debunking Howard Zinn"<span style="font-style: inherit;"> is </span><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Debunking-Howard-Zinn-Exposing-Generation/dp/1621577732/ref=as_sl_pc_qf_sp_asin_til?tag=amerpowe-20&linkCode=w00&linkId=e542639ff400f9cbd0a0139636c751ca&creativeASIN=1621577732" rel="nofollow" style="font-style: inherit;" target="_blank">available from <span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-style: initial; box-sizing: border-box; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; position: relative; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, background-color 0.2s ease 0s, opacity 0.2s ease 0s, border-color 0.2s ease 0s;">Regnery Publishing</span></span></a><a href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B07NLGWS6F/ref=dp-kindle-redirect?_encoding=UTF8&btkr=1" rel="noopener noreferrer" style="background-repeat: no-repeat; border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; color: #333333; font-family: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; transition: color 0.2s ease 0s, background-color 0.2s ease 0s, opacity 0.2s ease 0s, border-color 0.2s ease 0s; vertical-align: baseline;">.</a></span></strong></span></p>Tom Van Dykehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07121072404143877596noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-77822804391325573732022-10-02T08:46:00.008-06:002022-10-02T09:16:43.729-06:00Arnold's Article on James Madison, Anti-Christian Nationalist<p><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR3LF6vk-LYx-CiCS9CHtmHCEhjXi4E8T7EdcIoLKfGhOllXW3AAR_iFdQo">This is is very thorough and well argued article</a> from a brilliant young scholar, Gordon Dakota Arnold. He sympathizes with the perspective of more accommodation of traditional, conservative Christianity in public life. The article is a good reminder that America's Founders weren't always on the same page. But we can make observations like James Madison and Thomas Jefferson had a particular vision of church-state relations that was more secular and "separation of church and state" oriented. This has been called the "Virginia view" because Madison and Jefferson were both from Virginia and saw their vision validated in the <a href="https://www.monticello.org/research-education/thomas-jefferson-encyclopedia/virginia-statute-religious-freedom/">Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom</a>. </p><p>But there were other perspectives; the "Massachusetts view" was most notably articulated by George Washington and John Adams and permitted more expression of religion in public life and more interplay between church and state. </p><p>But onto Arnold's article. A taste:</p><h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; font-family: "Sorts Mill Goudy", serif; text-rendering: geometricprecision;"></h3><blockquote><h2 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; text-rendering: geometricprecision;"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: medium;">Was Madison a Christian?</span></h2><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: "Sorts Mill Goudy", serif; margin-bottom: 1.5em; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">It is quite likely that the beginning of Madison’s rejection of Christian nationalism is found in a rejection of orthodox Christianity more generally. Like George Washington, Madison was meticulous in his effort to keep his precise religious beliefs private, and he shied away from discussing theology or religious doctrine in all of his private correspondence. Whereas Thomas Jefferson and John Adams left ample evidence in their writings that they rejected the divine origins of orthodox Christianity, Madison’s papers never explicitly denounced doctrines such as the divinity of Jesus Christ or the resurrection.<span class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-11" id="fnref-5095-11" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">11</a></span> And yet, it is a mistake to rely upon arguments from silence as a means of bolstering Madison’s claims to orthodoxy. In 1774, when Madison the youth was studying under the Rev. John Witherspoon and considering a career in ministry, he praised the “advocates of the cause of Christ.”<span class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-12" id="fnref-5095-12" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">12</a></span> But after this, references to Jesus Christ in his private correspondence disappeared and he appeared to approach religion with more indifference. As an adult, Madison is said to have refused to kneel for prayer, and though he sometimes attended an Episcopal Church, he never joined it and never participated in holy communion.<span class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-13" id="fnref-5095-13" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">13</a></span> Friends of Madison, such as the Bishop William Meade, attested to his unbelief,<span class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-14" id="fnref-5095-14" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">14</a></span> and George Ticknor recounted a conversation he had with the President in 1815 wherein he “intimated to me his own regard for Unitarian doctrines.”<span class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-15" id="fnref-5095-15" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">15</a></span></p><p style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: "Sorts Mill Goudy", serif; margin-bottom: 1.5em; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">But more disturbing than Madison’s apparent shift away from the evangelical theology of his youth is the sense one gets while reading his corpus that his final position entailed more hostility towards traditional Christianity than has often been acknowledged. As early as 1772, Madison included a striking note in his Commonplace Book, quoting from the Cardinal de Retz: “Nothing is more Subject to Delusion than Piety. All manner of Errors creep and hide themselves under that Veil. Piety takes for sacred all her imaginations of what sort soever.”<span class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-16" id="fnref-5095-16" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">16</a></span> Throughout Madison’s long career, he often returned to this theme about the political dangers of piety and religion. “Religious bondage,” he said to his friend William Bradford, “shackles and debilitates the mind and unfits it for every noble enterprize every expanded prospect” [sic].<span class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-17" id="fnref-5095-17" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">17</a></span> While Madison in one instance referred in passing to Christianity as the “best & purest religion,” it is likely that he, like his friend Thomas Jefferson, primarily praised it with a view towards its ethical precepts—precepts accessible to unaided, natural reason—and emphatically not its doctrinal claims uncovered within divine revelation.<span class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-18" id="fnref-5095-18" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">18</a></span> In fact, Madison thought that doctrinal orthodoxy needed to be eliminated in order to further the cause of progress and enlightenment. In a letter to Thomas Jefferson, Madison complained about “Sectarian Seminaries” in Virginia—almost certainly alluding to Calvinist or Reformed institutions of learning—and their incorporation into the Virginia state charter on the grounds that this would empower churches of “any creed however absurd or contrary to that of a more enlightened age.”<span class="footnote" style="box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-19" id="fnref-5095-19" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">19</a></span> Doctrines must shift and change with the times, and any attempt to ground the nation in a static doctrine of Christianity is a threat to progress.</p></blockquote><p><span></span></p><blockquote><p><span> [...]</span></p><h2 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; clear: both; font-family: "Sorts Mill Goudy", serif; text-rendering: geometricprecision;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Madison and the Great Divorce of Christianity and Politics </span></h2><p><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="background-color: white;">Because he believed that religion is essentially a passion that causes rather than discourages faction, Madison also contended that it needed to be pacified for liberty to be preserved. The primary method of solving the political problem of Christianity was to encourage religious diversity and foster disunity. As Madison’s friend, neighbor, and first biographer William Cabell Rives reported, the President was fond of quoting Voltaire’s maxim that “if one religion only were allowed in England, the government would possibly be arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut each other’s throats; but, as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace.”</span><span class="footnote" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-30" id="fnref-5095-30" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">30</a></span><span style="background-color: white;"> And Madison himself left no doubt that these were exactly his sentiments. He spoke in </span><em style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">Federalist </em><span style="background-color: white;">no. 51 of how the “multiplicity of sects” was the only security for the preservation of “religious rights.”</span><span class="footnote" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-31" id="fnref-5095-31" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">31</a></span><span style="background-color: white;"> In a letter to Thomas Jefferson, Madison celebrated the fact that the “mutual hatred” of Virginia’s Christian denominations “has been much inflamed.”</span><span class="footnote" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-32" id="fnref-5095-32" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">32</a></span><span style="background-color: white;"> He added: “I am far from being sorry for it, as a coalition between them could alone endanger our religious rights.”</span><span class="footnote" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-33" id="fnref-5095-33" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">33</a></span><span style="background-color: white;"> Where the Apostle Paul spoke of the need for harmony, unity, and love within the body of Christ, Madison preferred that the church be characterized by disarray, discord, and faction. Only then would Christianity fail to mobilize itself as a political force, and only then would the natural rights of individuals be safe from a majority faction. Madison’s view, too, contrasts with the more Pauline beliefs of George Washington, who celebrated the “harmony and Brotherly Love which characterizes the clergy of different denominations” because it further substantiated his conviction that “Religion and Morality are the essential pillars of civil society.”</span><span class="footnote" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; line-height: 0; position: relative; text-rendering: geometricprecision; top: -0.5em; vertical-align: baseline;"><a href="https://americanreformer.org/2022/09/the-original-anti-christian-nationalist/?fbclid=IwAR0Mn1motHVMkr964GNQ53ssdiRd9IoSMVFa4qijykH5-paqnXZPJVUQhZA#fn-5095-34" id="fnref-5095-34" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; color: #d2414b; overflow-wrap: break-word; text-rendering: geometricprecision;">34</a></span> </span></p></blockquote>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1237087217187172116.post-27395139280446836642022-09-24T13:46:00.014-06:002022-09-25T11:55:53.263-06:00Lillback Repeats Phony Quotation<p><a href="https://providenceforum.org/blog/can-the-american-revolution-be-justified-in-light-of-romans-13/">In 2022</a>. </p><p>Dr. Peter Lillback, President of Westminster Theological Seminary has done some legitimate scholarly work on the history of theology. <a href="http://americancreation.blogspot.com/search?q=peter+lillback">I've criticized</a> <a href="https://www.amazon.com/George-Washingtons-Sacred-Peter-Lillback/dp/0978605268">his 1200 page book</a> that purports to show George Washington was an orthodox Trinitarian Christian. Though, let me note the book does have its virtue as a reference for all of Washington's words on matters of religion and government.<br /><br />I would assume that Lillback is well aware of the "controversy" regarding the phony quotations that the "Christian America" crowd has spread which caused them much egg on their faces. <br /><br /><a href="https://providenceforum.org/blog/can-the-american-revolution-be-justified-in-light-of-romans-13/">But, alas, in 2022, he steps in it</a>.</p><blockquote>Now, if you turn to page 16, Patrick Henry, do you remember what he said? The man who said, “Give me liberty or give me death.” He said, “It cannot be emphasized too strongly or too often that this great nation was founded, not by religionists but by Christians, not on religions but on the gospel of Jesus Christ.”</blockquote><p>The problem is Henry didn't say the "it cannot be emphasized ..." quotation. I've been noting this since around 2005. <br /><br />I know that the older Patrick Henry backed off from his militant anti-Federalist sentiments; but around the time that the US Constitution was ratified, calling America a "great nation" probably would have made Patrick Henry want to puke. This was a man who objected to the phrase "We the People" in the preamble to the US Constitution because it intimated the US was a single consolidated nation as opposed to a collection of free, sovereign states. <a href="https://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/preambles14.html">He wanted</a> "We the States."</p><p>This was back when the United States was commonly referred to in a plural sense, as in "The United States are," as opposed to "The United States is." </p><p>But in any event, <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/patrick-henry-quotes_b_1247107">Patrick Henry still didn't say it</a>. </p>Jonathan Rowehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04079637406589278386noreply@blogger.com5